STATISM, EMANCIPATION AND THE LEFT: UNDERSTANDING UNCONVENTIONAL POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN COSTA RICA
Abstract Ideology has been traditionally considered to be an explanation of political behavior, both inside and outside academia, which has been nowadays mostly abandoned. This paper sets out to investigate if a relationship between ideology and unconventional political participation exists, for the Costa Rican elections of 2014. It yields results that indicate that while the majority of Costa Ricans do not engage in political participation, there is a minority that does, with an identifiable emancipatory, statist and leftist ideology. A strong contradiction is found in the population between their ideological self-identification and their values and attitudes. The paper then argues in favor of more nuanced measurements of ideology than self-identification questions. Furthermore, it becomes apparent that each form of participation has a different relationship with the ideological elements.Therefore, studying them as if they were one should be avoided.
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Alcántara, M. (2004). ¿Instituciones o máquinas ideológicas? Origen, programa y organización de los partidos latinoamericanos. Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polítiques I Socials.
Alfaro, R. et al. (2012). Respuestas ciudadanas ante el malestar con la política: salida, voz y lealtad. San José: Editorial UCR.
Almond, G. and Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Alpert, M. I. and Peterson R. A. (1972). “On the Interpretation of Canonical Analysis.” Journal of Marketing Research, 9(2), 187- 192.
Alpízar, F. (2014). “Análisis de la acción colectiva en Costa Rica y ciclos de movilización entre 1994 y 2013.” Vigésimo Informe Estado de la Nación en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible.San José: Programa Estado de la Nación.
Altemeyer, B. (1996). The Authoritarian Spectre. London: Harvard University Press.
Alvarado Alcázar, A. (2016). “PROTESTAS. Una Contribución del Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales (ISS-UCR) a la Investigación de los Movimientos Sociopolíticos en Costa Rica.” Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos. 42, 565-570.
Bang, H. and Sørensen, E. (2001). “The Everyday Maker: Building Social rather than Political Capital.” In P. Dekker and E. Uslaner (eds.), Social Capital and Participation in Everyday Life. London: Routledge, pp. 148-161.
Barnes, S. H. and M. Kaase (1979). Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. London: Sage.
Bennett, L. (1998). “The Uncivic Culture: Communication, Identity, and the Rise of Lifestyle Politics.” Political Science and Politics, 31(4), 741-761.
Berelson, B. et al. (1954). Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bobbio, N. (1996). Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Boulding, C. (2014). NGOs, Political Protest, and Civil Society. New York: Cambridge University Press
Bratton, M. (1999). Political Participation in a New Democracy. Institutional Considerations from Zambia. Comparative Political Studies, 32(5), 549-588.
Castles, F. G. and P. Mair (1984). “Left-Right Political Scales: Some ´Expert´ Judgements.” European Journal of Political Research, 12, 73-88.
Clarke, H. et al. (2004). Political Choice in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Converse, P. (2007). “Perspectives on Mass Belief Systems and Communication.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. (pp. 144-158) New York: Oxford University Press.
Eagleton, T. (1997). Ideología:una Introducción.Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós Ibérica.
Eagleton, T. (2003). “La Ideología y sus vicisitudes en el marxismo occidental.” In S. Žižek (ed.), Ideología.Un mapa de la cuestión. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Económica, pp. 199-251.
Eliasoph, N. (1998). Avoiding Politics: How Americans Produce Apathy in Everyday Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fuchs, D. and H. D. Klingemann (1990). “The Left-Right Schema.” In M. Kent Jennings (ed.), Continuities in Political Action. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, pp. 204-234.
Hooghe, M. et al. (2005). “Politics in the Supermarket: Political Consumerism as a Form of Political Participation.” International Political Science Review, 26(3), 245-269.
Hooghe, M. and Y. Dejaeghere (2007). “Does the ´Monitorial Citizen ´ Exist? An Empirical Investigation into the Occurrence of Postmodern Forms of Citizenship in the Nordic Countries.” Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 249-271.
Hustinx, L. and F. Lammertyn (2003). “Collective and Reflexive Styles of Volunteering: A Sociological Modernization Perspective.” Voluntas, 14(2), 167-87.
Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, R. and H. D. Klingemann (1979). “Ideological Conceptualization and Value Priorities.” In S. H. Barnes and M. Kaase (eds.), Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. London:Sage, pp. 204-214.
Inglehart, R. and D. Oyserman (2004). “Individualism, Autonomy and Self-expression: The Human Development Syndrome.” In H. Vinken et al. (eds.), Comparing Cultures, Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective. Leiden:Brill, pp. 74-96.
Inglehart, R. and C. Welzel (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy. The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales-Universidad de Costa Rica y Programa Estado de la Nación. (2015). Manual metodológico: Base de datos sobre acciones colectivas en Costa Rica. Retrieved from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/files/estadisticas/costarica/ bases-de-datos/ManualAccionesColectivas_vNov2015.pdf.
Kuklinski, J. H. and B. Peyton (2007). “Belief Systems and Political Decision Making.” In R. J. Dalton and H.D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 45-64.
Laclau, E. (1986). Política e Ideología en la Teoría Marxista. Capitalismo, Fascismo, Populismo. Madrid: Siglo XXI Editores.
Laclau, E. and C. Mouffe (1987). Hegemonía y estrategia socialista. Hacía una radicalización de la democracia. Madrid: Siglo XXI Editores.
Lane, R. E. (1959). Political Life. Why and How People Get Involved in Politics. New York: Free Press.
Lane, R. E. (1962) Political Ideology: Why the Common Man Believes What He Does. New York: Free Press.
Lazarsfeld, P. et al. (1948) The People’s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
Leighley, J. E. (1995). “Attitudes, Opportunities and Incentives: A Field Essay on Political Participation.” Political Research Quarterly, 48(1), 181-209.
Lichterman, P. (1996). The Search for Political Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lowndes, V. (2000). “Women and Social Capital: A Comment on Hall’s ‘Social Capital in Britain.’” British Journal of Political Science, 30 (3), 533–537.
Mair, P. (2007). “Left-Right Orientations.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 2016-2022.
Marien, S. et al. (2010). “Inequalities in Non-Institutionalized Forms of Political Participation. A Multilevel Analysis for 25 countries.” Political Studies, 58(1), 187-213.
Meek, N. (1999). “Personal and Economic Ideology: British Party Politics and the Political compass.” Political Notes, 155, 1-51.
Muller, E. N. (1979). Aggressive Political Participation. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
Muller, E. N. and R. K. Godwin (1984). “Democratic and Aggressive Political Participation: Estimation of a Nonrecursive Model.” Political Behavior, 6, 129-146.
Norris, P. (1999). Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norris, P. (2002). Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Opp, K. D. (1990). “Postmaterialism, Collective Action, and Political Protest.” American Journal of Political Science, 34 (1), 212-235.
Opp, K. D. et al. (1995). “Left-right Ideology and Collective Political Action: A Comparative Analysis of Germany, Israel and Peru.” In C. J. Jenkins (ed.), The Politics of Social Protest: Comparative Perspective on States and Social Movement. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 63-95.
Putnam, R. (ed.) (2002). Democracies in Flux. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ramírez, O. (2010). Comportamiento del Electorado Costarricense, Elecciones de 2006. San José: Editorial UCR.
Raventós, C. et al. (2005). Abstencionistas en Costa Rica. ¿Quiénes son y por qué no votan? San José: Editorial UCR, IIDH/CAPEL, TSE.
Sartori, G. (1969). “Politics, Ideology and Belief Systems.” The American Political Science Review, 63(2),398-411.
Schwartz, S. H. (2006). “A Theory of Cultural Value Orientations: Explication and Application.” Comparative Sociology, 5 (2-3), 137-182.
Semetko, H. (2007). “Political Communication.” In R. J. Dalton y H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 123-143.
Sibley, C. G. et al. (2006). “Social Dominance Orientation and Right-Wing Authoritarianism: Additive and interactive effects.” Political Psychology, 27(5),755-768.
Sidanius, J. and F. Pratto (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sojo, C. (2010). Igualiticos: La construcción social de la desigualdad en Costa Rica. San José: PNUD.
Torcal, M. et al. (2016). “Word in the Street: The Persistence of Leftist-dominated Protests in Europe.” West European Politics, 39(2), 326-350.
Van Deth, J. (2001). Studying Political Participation: Towards a Theory of Everything? Paper presented at the Joint Sessions of Workshops of the European Consortium for Political Research, Workshop: Electronic Democracy: Mobilisation, Organisation and Participation via new ICTs, Grenoble, April 6-11.
Van Dijk, T. A. (1998). Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press. Verba, S. and N. Nie (1972). Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper and Ro.
Welzel, C. (2007). “Individual Modernity.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 185-205.
Welzel, C. and F. Deutsch (2012). “Emancipative Values and Non- Violent Protest: The Importance of ‘Ecological’ Effects.” British Journal of Political Science, 42(2), 465-479.
Alcántara, M. (2004). ¿Instituciones o máquinas ideológicas? Origen, programa y organización de los partidos latinoamericanos. Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polítiques I Socials.
Alfaro, R. et al. (2012). Respuestas ciudadanas ante el malestar con la política: salida, voz y lealtad. San José: Editorial UCR.
Almond, G. and Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Alpert, M. I. and Peterson R. A. (1972). “On the Interpretation of Canonical Analysis.” Journal of Marketing Research, 9(2), 187- 192.
Alpízar, F. (2014). “Análisis de la acción colectiva en Costa Rica y ciclos de movilización entre 1994 y 2013.” Vigésimo Informe Estado de la Nación en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible.San José: Programa Estado de la Nación.
Altemeyer, B. (1996). The Authoritarian Spectre. London: Harvard University Press.
Alvarado Alcázar, A. (2016). “PROTESTAS. Una Contribución del Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales (ISS-UCR) a la Investigación de los Movimientos Sociopolíticos en Costa Rica.” Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos. 42, 565-570.
Bang, H. and Sørensen, E. (2001). “The Everyday Maker: Building Social rather than Political Capital.” In P. Dekker and E. Uslaner (eds.), Social Capital and Participation in Everyday Life. London: Routledge, pp. 148-161.
Barnes, S. H. and M. Kaase (1979). Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. London: Sage.
Bennett, L. (1998). “The Uncivic Culture: Communication, Identity, and the Rise of Lifestyle Politics.” Political Science and Politics, 31(4), 741-761.
Berelson, B. et al. (1954). Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bobbio, N. (1996). Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Boulding, C. (2014). NGOs, Political Protest, and Civil Society. New York: Cambridge University Press
Bratton, M. (1999). Political Participation in a New Democracy. Institutional Considerations from Zambia. Comparative Political Studies, 32(5), 549-588.
Castles, F. G. and P. Mair (1984). “Left-Right Political Scales: Some ´Expert´ Judgements.” European Journal of Political Research, 12, 73-88.
Clarke, H. et al. (2004). Political Choice in Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
Converse, P. (2007). “Perspectives on Mass Belief Systems and Communication.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. (pp. 144-158) New York: Oxford University Press.
Eagleton, T. (1997). Ideología:una Introducción.Barcelona: Ediciones Paidós Ibérica.
Eagleton, T. (2003). “La Ideología y sus vicisitudes en el marxismo occidental.” In S. Žižek (ed.), Ideología.Un mapa de la cuestión. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Económica, pp. 199-251.
Eliasoph, N. (1998). Avoiding Politics: How Americans Produce Apathy in Everyday Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fuchs, D. and H. D. Klingemann (1990). “The Left-Right Schema.” In M. Kent Jennings (ed.), Continuities in Political Action. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, pp. 204-234.
Hooghe, M. et al. (2005). “Politics in the Supermarket: Political Consumerism as a Form of Political Participation.” International Political Science Review, 26(3), 245-269.
Hooghe, M. and Y. Dejaeghere (2007). “Does the ´Monitorial Citizen ´ Exist? An Empirical Investigation into the Occurrence of Postmodern Forms of Citizenship in the Nordic Countries.” Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 249-271.
Hustinx, L. and F. Lammertyn (2003). “Collective and Reflexive Styles of Volunteering: A Sociological Modernization Perspective.” Voluntas, 14(2), 167-87.
Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart, R. and H. D. Klingemann (1979). “Ideological Conceptualization and Value Priorities.” In S. H. Barnes and M. Kaase (eds.), Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. London:Sage, pp. 204-214.
Inglehart, R. and D. Oyserman (2004). “Individualism, Autonomy and Self-expression: The Human Development Syndrome.” In H. Vinken et al. (eds.), Comparing Cultures, Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective. Leiden:Brill, pp. 74-96.
Inglehart, R. and C. Welzel (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy. The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales-Universidad de Costa Rica y Programa Estado de la Nación. (2015). Manual metodológico: Base de datos sobre acciones colectivas en Costa Rica. Retrieved from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/files/estadisticas/costarica/ bases-de-datos/ManualAccionesColectivas_vNov2015.pdf.
Kuklinski, J. H. and B. Peyton (2007). “Belief Systems and Political Decision Making.” In R. J. Dalton and H.D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 45-64.
Laclau, E. (1986). Política e Ideología en la Teoría Marxista. Capitalismo, Fascismo, Populismo. Madrid: Siglo XXI Editores.
Laclau, E. and C. Mouffe (1987). Hegemonía y estrategia socialista. Hacía una radicalización de la democracia. Madrid: Siglo XXI Editores.
Lane, R. E. (1959). Political Life. Why and How People Get Involved in Politics. New York: Free Press.
Lane, R. E. (1962) Political Ideology: Why the Common Man Believes What He Does. New York: Free Press.
Lazarsfeld, P. et al. (1948) The People’s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
Leighley, J. E. (1995). “Attitudes, Opportunities and Incentives: A Field Essay on Political Participation.” Political Research Quarterly, 48(1), 181-209.
Lichterman, P. (1996). The Search for Political Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lowndes, V. (2000). “Women and Social Capital: A Comment on Hall’s ‘Social Capital in Britain.’” British Journal of Political Science, 30 (3), 533–537.
Mair, P. (2007). “Left-Right Orientations.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 2016-2022.
Marien, S. et al. (2010). “Inequalities in Non-Institutionalized Forms of Political Participation. A Multilevel Analysis for 25 countries.” Political Studies, 58(1), 187-213.
Meek, N. (1999). “Personal and Economic Ideology: British Party Politics and the Political compass.” Political Notes, 155, 1-51.
Muller, E. N. (1979). Aggressive Political Participation. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
Muller, E. N. and R. K. Godwin (1984). “Democratic and Aggressive Political Participation: Estimation of a Nonrecursive Model.” Political Behavior, 6, 129-146.
Norris, P. (1999). Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norris, P. (2002). Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Opp, K. D. (1990). “Postmaterialism, Collective Action, and Political Protest.” American Journal of Political Science, 34 (1), 212-235.
Opp, K. D. et al. (1995). “Left-right Ideology and Collective Political Action: A Comparative Analysis of Germany, Israel and Peru.” In C. J. Jenkins (ed.), The Politics of Social Protest: Comparative Perspective on States and Social Movement. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 63-95.
Putnam, R. (ed.) (2002). Democracies in Flux. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ramírez, O. (2010). Comportamiento del Electorado Costarricense, Elecciones de 2006. San José: Editorial UCR.
Raventós, C. et al. (2005). Abstencionistas en Costa Rica. ¿Quiénes son y por qué no votan? San José: Editorial UCR, IIDH/CAPEL, TSE.
Sartori, G. (1969). “Politics, Ideology and Belief Systems.” The American Political Science Review, 63(2),398-411.
Schwartz, S. H. (2006). “A Theory of Cultural Value Orientations: Explication and Application.” Comparative Sociology, 5 (2-3), 137-182.
Semetko, H. (2007). “Political Communication.” In R. J. Dalton y H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 123-143.
Sibley, C. G. et al. (2006). “Social Dominance Orientation and Right-Wing Authoritarianism: Additive and interactive effects.” Political Psychology, 27(5),755-768.
Sidanius, J. and F. Pratto (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sojo, C. (2010). Igualiticos: La construcción social de la desigualdad en Costa Rica. San José: PNUD.
Torcal, M. et al. (2016). “Word in the Street: The Persistence of Leftist-dominated Protests in Europe.” West European Politics, 39(2), 326-350.
Van Deth, J. (2001). Studying Political Participation: Towards a Theory of Everything? Paper presented at the Joint Sessions of Workshops of the European Consortium for Political Research, Workshop: Electronic Democracy: Mobilisation, Organisation and Participation via new ICTs, Grenoble, April 6-11.
Van Dijk, T. A. (1998). Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press. Verba, S. and N. Nie (1972). Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper and Ro.
Welzel, C. (2007). “Individual Modernity.” In R. J. Dalton and H. D. Klingemann (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 185-205.
Welzel, C. and F. Deutsch (2012). “Emancipative Values and Non- Violent Protest: The Importance of ‘Ecological’ Effects.” British Journal of Political Science, 42(2), 465-479.
Chavarría-Mora, E. (2019). STATISM, EMANCIPATION AND THE LEFT: UNDERSTANDING UNCONVENTIONAL POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN COSTA RICA. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 8(1), 127–163. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.22344
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