Aquiescencia y resistencia: el régimen de Ortega en Nicaragua
Resumen Recientemente, Nicaragua ha sido noticia por las protestas contra Daniel Ortega. Elegido legítimamente en 2006, su presidencia se ha encaminado hacia una dictadura. Inicialmente los ciudadanos consintieron, disfrutando de sus programas sociales. Cuando estos programas terminaron, también lo hizo la aquiescencia. El caso de Nicaragua muestra cómo un presidente electo puede convertirse en un dictador. También muestra los límites tanto del autoritarismo como de la aquiescencia. Es posible que los ciudadanos, silenciosos, solo hayan llegado a un trato desesperado, que terminará cuando terminen los programas sociales.
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Anderson, L. E. (2010a). Social Capital in Developing Democracies: Nicaragua and Argentina Compared. Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, L. E. (2010b). Poverty and Political Empowerment: Local Citizen Political Participation as a Path toward Social Justice in Nicaragua. Forum on Public Policy, 1, 1-19.
Anderson, L. E. y Dodd, L. C. (2005). Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990-2001. University of Chicago Press.
Anderson, L. E., Dodd, L. C. y Park, W. (2017). Electoral Competition and Democratic Decline in Nicaragua: Uncovering an Electorally Viable Platform for the Right. Democratization, 24(6), 970-986. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2016.1256284
Anderson, L. E., Dodd, L. C. y Park, W. (2020, 9 al 11 de enero). Nicaraguan Exceptionalism and Democratic Breakdown: Contributing and Countervailing Factors [Presentación de conferencia]. Annual Conference of the Southern Political Science Association. San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Anderson, L. E. y Park, W. (2018). International Contributions to Nicaraguan Democracy: The Role of Foreign Municipal Donations for Social Development. Foreign Policy Analysis, 14(2), 276-297. https://doi: 10.1093/fpa/orw047
Arrien, J. B. y De Castilla Urbina, M. (2001). Educación y pobreza en Nicaragua. Las apuestas a la esperanza. Universidad Centroamericana.
Banco Mundial (1995). Republic of Nicaragua Poverty Assessment. Informe n.º 14038. Banco Mundial.
Barahona, E. (2012). A Politicized Judiciary. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 91-120). Lynne Rienner.
Bermeo, N. (2003). Ordinary People in Extraordinary Times: The Citizenry and the Breakdown of Democracy. Princeton University Press.
Bermeo, N. (2016). On Democratic Backsliding. Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5-19.
Booth, J. (1985). The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution (2.ª ed.). Westview Press.
Bunce, V. y Wolchik, S. (2011). Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge University Press.
Carothers, C. (2018). The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 129-135.
Close, D. (2004). President Bolaños Runs a Reverse or How Arnoldo Alemán Wound Up in Prison. En D. Close y K. Deonandan (Eds.), Undoing Democracy: The Politics of Electoral Caudillismo (pp. 167- 182). Lexington Books.
Close, D. (2007). From Guerillas to Government to Opposition and Back to Government, The Sand¬inistas since 1979. En K. Deonandan, D. Close y G. Prevost (Eds.), From Revolutionary Movements to Political Parties: Cases from Latin America and Africa (pp. 17-42). Palgrave Macmillan.
Close, D. y Deonandan, K. (2004). Undoing Democracy: The Politics of Electoral Caudillismo. Lexington Books.
Corrales, J. y Penfold, M. (2015). Dragon in the Tropics: The Legacy of Hugo Chávez. The Brookings Institution.
Falleti, T. (2010). Decentralization and Subnational Politics in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Fox, J. (2007). Rural Democratization and Decentralization at the State/Society Interface: What Counts as Local Government in the Mexican Countryside. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 34(3-4), 527- 559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150701802934
Gibson, E. (2005). Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Democratic Countries. World Politics, 58(1), 101-132.
Gibson, E. (2012). Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Federal Democracies. Cambridge University Press.
Ginsburg, T. (2018). Democracy’s Near Misses. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 16-30.
Huntington, S. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Icaza Gallard, J. (2018). Fin del Estado de Derecho: Principales Reformas Constitucionales y Legislativas. En E. Jarquín (Coord.), El Régimen de Ortega (pp. 65-115). PAVSA.
International Human Rights Law Group. (1984, 11 de diciembre). A Political Opening in Nicaragua: Report on the Nicaraguan Elections of November 4, 1984. Washington Office on Latin America.
Kampwirth, K. (2012). The Feminist Movement. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 185-214). Lynne Rienner.
Kane, H. (1941). Huey Long’s Louisiana Hay Ride: The American Rehearsal for Dictatorship, 1928-1940. Pelican.
(LASA) Latin American Studies Association. (1984). Electoral Process in Nicaragua: Domestic and International Influences. Report of the LASA Delegation to Observe the Nicaraguan General Election of November 4, 1984.
(LASA) Latin American Studies Association. (1990). Electoral Democracy under International Pressure: The Report of the Latin American Studies Association Commission to Observe the 1990 Nicaraguan Election.
Levine, D. y Molina, J. (2012). Calidad de la Democracia en Venezuela. América Latina Hoy, 62, 157-175.
Marti i Puig, S. (2012). The FSLN and Sandinismo. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 21-44). Lynne Rienner.
Martínez, L. E. (2015, 23 de octubre). ¿Qué se hizo el alcalde de Ciudad Darío? La Prensa. https:// www.laprensa.com.ni/2015/10/27/politica/1925940-que-se-hizo-el-alcalde-de-ciudad-dario
McClintock, C. (2018). Electoral Rules and Democracy in Latin America. Oxford University Press.
McConnell, S. A. (2012). The Uncertain Evolution of the Electoral System. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979. (pp. 121-159). Lynne Rienner.
McKinley Jr., J. C. (2006, 8 de noviembre). Nicaraguans’ Votes Are In, and Ortega Is Back. https:// www.nytimes.com/2006/11/08/world/americas/08nicaragua.html
Peraza, J. A. (2018). El Colapso del Sistema Electoral. En E. Jarquín (Coord.), El Régimen de Ortega (pp. 116-140). PAVSA.
Spalding, R. J. (2012). Poverty Politics. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 215-243). Lynne Rienner.
Spalding, R. J. (2014). Contesting Trade in Central America: Market Reform and Resistance. University of Texas Press.
The Irish Times. (2003, 8 de diciembre). Ex-Nicaraguan President Jailed for Corruption. https://www. irishtimes.com/news/ex-nicaraguan-president-jailed-for-corruption-1.513578
Trudolyubov, M. (2019). The Putin Touch in Venezuela. The Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter. org/blog-post/the-putin-touch-venezuela
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1982). Nicaragua in Revolution. Praeger Press.
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1997). Reagan versus the Sandinistas: The Undeclared War on Nicaragua. Westview Press.
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1997). Nicaragua without Illusions: Regime Transition and Structural Adjustment in the 1990s. Scholarly Resources.
White, R. D., Jr. (2006). Kingfish: The Reign of Huey P. Long. Random House.
Anderson, L. E. (2010b). Poverty and Political Empowerment: Local Citizen Political Participation as a Path toward Social Justice in Nicaragua. Forum on Public Policy, 1, 1-19.
Anderson, L. E. y Dodd, L. C. (2005). Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990-2001. University of Chicago Press.
Anderson, L. E., Dodd, L. C. y Park, W. (2017). Electoral Competition and Democratic Decline in Nicaragua: Uncovering an Electorally Viable Platform for the Right. Democratization, 24(6), 970-986. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2016.1256284
Anderson, L. E., Dodd, L. C. y Park, W. (2020, 9 al 11 de enero). Nicaraguan Exceptionalism and Democratic Breakdown: Contributing and Countervailing Factors [Presentación de conferencia]. Annual Conference of the Southern Political Science Association. San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Anderson, L. E. y Park, W. (2018). International Contributions to Nicaraguan Democracy: The Role of Foreign Municipal Donations for Social Development. Foreign Policy Analysis, 14(2), 276-297. https://doi: 10.1093/fpa/orw047
Arrien, J. B. y De Castilla Urbina, M. (2001). Educación y pobreza en Nicaragua. Las apuestas a la esperanza. Universidad Centroamericana.
Banco Mundial (1995). Republic of Nicaragua Poverty Assessment. Informe n.º 14038. Banco Mundial.
Barahona, E. (2012). A Politicized Judiciary. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 91-120). Lynne Rienner.
Bermeo, N. (2003). Ordinary People in Extraordinary Times: The Citizenry and the Breakdown of Democracy. Princeton University Press.
Bermeo, N. (2016). On Democratic Backsliding. Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5-19.
Booth, J. (1985). The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution (2.ª ed.). Westview Press.
Bunce, V. y Wolchik, S. (2011). Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge University Press.
Carothers, C. (2018). The Surprising Instability of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 129-135.
Close, D. (2004). President Bolaños Runs a Reverse or How Arnoldo Alemán Wound Up in Prison. En D. Close y K. Deonandan (Eds.), Undoing Democracy: The Politics of Electoral Caudillismo (pp. 167- 182). Lexington Books.
Close, D. (2007). From Guerillas to Government to Opposition and Back to Government, The Sand¬inistas since 1979. En K. Deonandan, D. Close y G. Prevost (Eds.), From Revolutionary Movements to Political Parties: Cases from Latin America and Africa (pp. 17-42). Palgrave Macmillan.
Close, D. y Deonandan, K. (2004). Undoing Democracy: The Politics of Electoral Caudillismo. Lexington Books.
Corrales, J. y Penfold, M. (2015). Dragon in the Tropics: The Legacy of Hugo Chávez. The Brookings Institution.
Falleti, T. (2010). Decentralization and Subnational Politics in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Fox, J. (2007). Rural Democratization and Decentralization at the State/Society Interface: What Counts as Local Government in the Mexican Countryside. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 34(3-4), 527- 559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150701802934
Gibson, E. (2005). Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Democratic Countries. World Politics, 58(1), 101-132.
Gibson, E. (2012). Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Federal Democracies. Cambridge University Press.
Ginsburg, T. (2018). Democracy’s Near Misses. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 16-30.
Huntington, S. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Icaza Gallard, J. (2018). Fin del Estado de Derecho: Principales Reformas Constitucionales y Legislativas. En E. Jarquín (Coord.), El Régimen de Ortega (pp. 65-115). PAVSA.
International Human Rights Law Group. (1984, 11 de diciembre). A Political Opening in Nicaragua: Report on the Nicaraguan Elections of November 4, 1984. Washington Office on Latin America.
Kampwirth, K. (2012). The Feminist Movement. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 185-214). Lynne Rienner.
Kane, H. (1941). Huey Long’s Louisiana Hay Ride: The American Rehearsal for Dictatorship, 1928-1940. Pelican.
(LASA) Latin American Studies Association. (1984). Electoral Process in Nicaragua: Domestic and International Influences. Report of the LASA Delegation to Observe the Nicaraguan General Election of November 4, 1984.
(LASA) Latin American Studies Association. (1990). Electoral Democracy under International Pressure: The Report of the Latin American Studies Association Commission to Observe the 1990 Nicaraguan Election.
Levine, D. y Molina, J. (2012). Calidad de la Democracia en Venezuela. América Latina Hoy, 62, 157-175.
Marti i Puig, S. (2012). The FSLN and Sandinismo. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 21-44). Lynne Rienner.
Martínez, L. E. (2015, 23 de octubre). ¿Qué se hizo el alcalde de Ciudad Darío? La Prensa. https:// www.laprensa.com.ni/2015/10/27/politica/1925940-que-se-hizo-el-alcalde-de-ciudad-dario
McClintock, C. (2018). Electoral Rules and Democracy in Latin America. Oxford University Press.
McConnell, S. A. (2012). The Uncertain Evolution of the Electoral System. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979. (pp. 121-159). Lynne Rienner.
McKinley Jr., J. C. (2006, 8 de noviembre). Nicaraguans’ Votes Are In, and Ortega Is Back. https:// www.nytimes.com/2006/11/08/world/americas/08nicaragua.html
Peraza, J. A. (2018). El Colapso del Sistema Electoral. En E. Jarquín (Coord.), El Régimen de Ortega (pp. 116-140). PAVSA.
Spalding, R. J. (2012). Poverty Politics. En D. Close, S. Martí i Puig y S. A. McConnell (Eds.), The Sandinistas and Nicaragua since 1979 (pp. 215-243). Lynne Rienner.
Spalding, R. J. (2014). Contesting Trade in Central America: Market Reform and Resistance. University of Texas Press.
The Irish Times. (2003, 8 de diciembre). Ex-Nicaraguan President Jailed for Corruption. https://www. irishtimes.com/news/ex-nicaraguan-president-jailed-for-corruption-1.513578
Trudolyubov, M. (2019). The Putin Touch in Venezuela. The Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter. org/blog-post/the-putin-touch-venezuela
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1982). Nicaragua in Revolution. Praeger Press.
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1997). Reagan versus the Sandinistas: The Undeclared War on Nicaragua. Westview Press.
Walker, T. W. (Ed.) (1997). Nicaragua without Illusions: Regime Transition and Structural Adjustment in the 1990s. Scholarly Resources.
White, R. D., Jr. (2006). Kingfish: The Reign of Huey P. Long. Random House.
Anderson, L. E., Dodd, L. C., & Park, W.- ho. (2021). Aquiescencia y resistencia: el régimen de Ortega en Nicaragua. América Latina Hoy, 87, 151–170. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh.20295
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