Trayectorias históricas y «responsiveness» del sistema de partidos en siete países de América Latina
Resumen El presente artículo se ocupa de los orígenes y los niveles de congruencia en la representación luego de la tercera ola democratizadora en América Latina. Pone a prueba el argumento que sostiene que los sistemas de partidos que han experimentado polarización ideológica a principios del siglo XX y estaban ubicados en el camino programático hoy en día son proclives a exhibir altos niveles de congruencia en la representación de los intereses de los votantes. En otros contextos, donde las élites se apoyan sustancialmente en recursos clientelares para desmovilizar a la ciudadanía, allí donde el sufragio fue extendido en la primera mitad del siglo XX, es probable que la representación programática permanezca débil hasta la década de 1990. Las hipótesis se testean combinando las encuestas a legisladores de América Latina provistas por el Proyecto Élites Parlamentarias de América Latina (PELA) de la Universidad de Salamanca y de los datos provistos por el World Value Survey (WVS). Los resultados no solo revelan importantes contrastes en la congruencia de la representación entre los siete países estudiados, sino que las diferencias pueden ser explicadas por los patrones históricos de formación de los sistemas de partidos.
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LEVITSKY, Steven y WAY, Lucan A. Why Democracy Needs a Level Playing Field. Journal of Democracy, 2010a, vol. 21 (1): 57-68.
LEVITSKY, Steven y WAY, Lucan A. Competitive Authoritarianism. Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010b.
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LUNA, Juan Pablo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Political Representation in Latin America. En KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Latin American Party Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010: 119-144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414004273205
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BRUSCO, Valeria; NAZARENO, Marcelo y STOKES, Susan C. Vote Buying in Argentina. Latin American Research Review, 2004, vol. 39 (2): 66-88.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lar.2004.0022
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COPPEDGE, Michael. Strong Parties and Lame Ducks. Presidential Partyarchy and Factionalism in Venezuela. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994.
COPPEDGE, Michael. A Classification of Latin American Political Parties. Working Paper #244, November. Kellogg Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame, 1997: 1-82.
COPPEDGE, Michael. The Evolution of Latin American Party Systems. En MAINWARING, Scott y VALENZUELA, Arturo. Politics, Society, and Democracy: Latin America. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998: 171-206.
COSER, Lewis A. The Functions of Social Conflict. An examination of the concept of social conflict and its use in empirical sociological research. New York: The Free Press, 1956.
DAHL, Robert A. Polyarchy. Participation and Opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971.
DAHL, Robert A. Democracy and its Critics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
DALTON, Russell J. Political Parties and Political Representation. Party Supporters and Party Élites in Nine Nations. Comparative Political Studies, 1985, vol. 18 (3): 267-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414085018003001
DI TELLA, Torcuato S. History of Political Parties in Twentieth-Century Latin America. New Brunswick, 2004.
DIAMOND, Larry y MORLINO, Leonardo. Introduction. En DIAMOND, Larry y MORLINO, Leonardo. Assessing the Quality of Democracy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005: IX-XIIII.
DISCH, Lisa. Toward a Mobilization Conception of Democratic Representation. American Political Science Review, 2011, vol. 105 (1): 100-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003055410000602
DIX, Robert H. Cleavage Structures and Party Systems in Latin America. Comparative Politics, 1989, vol. 22 (1): 23-37.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/422320
ENYEDI, Zsolt. The role of agency in cleavage formation. European Journal of Political Research, 2005, vol. 44 (5): 697-720.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00244.x
GIBSON, Edward L. Class and Conservative Parties. Argentina in Comparative Perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
GIBSON, Edward L. The Populist Road to Market Reform. Policy and Electoral Coalitions in Mexico and Argentina. World Politics, 1997, vol. 49 (3): 339-370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/wp.1997.0011
GONZÁLEZ, Luis E. Political Structures and Democracy in Uruguay. Notre Dame, IND: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991.
GONZÁLEZ, Luis E. Continuity and Change in the Uruguayan Party System. En MAINWARING, Scott y SCULLY, Timothy R. Building Democratic Institutions. Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995: 138-163.
GREENE, Kenneth F. Why Dominant Parties Lose. Mexico’s Democratization in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
GUNTHER, Richard y DIAMOND, Larry. Species of Political Parties: A New Typology. Party Politics, 2003, vol. 9 (2): 167-199.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/13540688030092003
HAGOPIAN, Frances. Traditional Politics and Regime Change in Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
HILLIKER, Grant. The Politics of Reform in Peru: The Aprista and other Mass Parties of Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971.
KARL, Terry Lynn. Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela. En O’DONNELL, Guillermo; SCHMITTER, Philippe C. y WHITEHEAD, Lawrence. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986: 196219.
KITSCHELT, Herbert. Linkages Between Citizens and Politicians in Democratic Polities. Comparative Political Studies, 2000, vol. 33 (6/7): 845-879.
KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Long-Term Influences on the Structuring of Latin American Party Systems. En KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Latin American Party Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010a: 177-208.
KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Democratic Politics and Political Economy since the 1980s: Transforming the Programmatic Structure of Latin American Party Systems? En KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Latin American Party Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010b: 209-235.
KITSCHELT, Herbert y WILKINSON, Steven I. Citizen-politician linkages: an introduction. En KITSCHELT, Herbert y WILKINSON, Steven I. Patrons, Clients and Policies. Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007: 1-49.
KLINGEMANN, Hans-Dieter. Party Positions und Voter Orientations. En KLINGEMANN, Hans-Dieter y FUCHS, Doris. Citizens und the State. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995: 183-205.
KLINGEMANN, Hans-Dieter; HOFFERBERT, Richard I. y BUDGE, Ian. Parties, Policies, and Democracy. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994.
KREUZER, Marcus. Institutions and Innovation. Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy France and Germany, 1870-1939. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
KRIESI, Hanspeter; GRANDE, Edgar; LACHAT, Romain; DOLEZAL, Martin; BORNSCHIER, Simon y FREY, Timotheos. Western European Politics in the Age of Globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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LEVITSKY, Steven. Transforming Labor-Based Parties in Latin America. Argentine Peronism in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
LEVITSKY, Steven y WAY, Lucan A. Why Democracy Needs a Level Playing Field. Journal of Democracy, 2010a, vol. 21 (1): 57-68.
LEVITSKY, Steven y WAY, Lucan A. Competitive Authoritarianism. Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010b.
LIPSET, Seymour Martin y ROKKAN, Stein. Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments: An Introduction. En LIPSET, Seymour Martin y ROKKAN, Stein. Party Systems and Voter Alignments. New York-London: The Free Press-Collier-Macmillan, 1967: 1-64.
LUNA, Juan Pablo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Political Representation in Latin America. A Study of Élite-Mass Congruence in Nine Countries. Comparative Political Studies, 2005, vol. 38 (4): 388-416.
LUNA, Juan Pablo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Political Representation in Latin America. En KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Latin American Party Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010: 119-144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414004273205
LYNE, Mona M. The Voter’s Dilemma and Democratic Accountability. Latin America and Beyond.University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008.
MADSEN, Douglas y SNOW, Peter G. The Charismatic Bond. Political Behaviour in Time of Crisis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.
MAHONEY, James. The Legacies of Liberalism. Path Dependence and Political Regimes in Central America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
MAINWARING, Scott. Rethinking Party Systems in the Third Wave of Democratization: The Case of Brazil. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
MAINWARING, Scott y TORCAL, Mariano. Party System Institutionalization and Party System Theory after the Third Wave of Democratization. En KATZ, Richard S. y CROTTY, William. Handbook of Party Politics. London: Sage, 2006: 204-227.
MAIR, Peter. Party System Change. Approaches and Interpretations. Oxford: Clarandon Press, 1997.
MAIR, Peter. The freezing hypothesis. An evaluation. En KARVONEN, Lauri y KUHNLE, Stein. Party Systems and Voter Alignments Revisited. London: Routledge, 2001: 27-44.
MANSBRIDGE, Jane. Rethinking Representation. American Political Science Review, 2003, vol. 97 (4): 515-528.
MARTZ, John D. The Politics of Clientelism. Democracy and State in Colombia. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1997.
MCDONALD, Ronald H. y RUHL, J. Mark. Party Politics and Elections in Latin America. Boulder: Westview Press, 1989.
MCGUIRE, James. Political Parties and Democracy in Argentina. En MAINWARING, Scott y SCULLY, Timothy R. Building Democratic Institutions. Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995: 200-246.
MORENO, Alejandro. Political Cleavages. Issues, Parties, and the Consolidation of Democracy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999.
O’DONNELL, Guillermo. Delegative Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 1994, vol. 5 (1): 55-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/JOD.1994.0010
PIERSON, Paul. Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics. American Political Science Review, 2000, vol. 94 (2): 251-267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2586011
PITKIN, Hanna. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
PIZARRO LEONGÓMEZ, Eduardo. Giants with Feet of Clay: Political Parties in Colombia. En MAIN-
WARING, Scott; BEJARANO, Ana María y PIZARRO LEONGÓMEZ, Eduardo. The Crisis of Democratic Representation in the Andes. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006: 78-99.
POWELL, G. Bingham, Jr. Elections as Instruments of Democracy. Majoritarian and Proportional Visions. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.
RIVAS PÉREZ, Cristina. The Dimensions of Polarization in Parliaments. En ALCÁNTARA SÁEZ, Manuel. Politicians and Politics in Latin America. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2008: 139-160.
ROKKAN, Stein. State Formation, Nation-Building, and Mass Politics in Europe: The Theory of Stein Rokkan, Based on His Collected Works. Urwin Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
ROSAS, Guillermo. Issues, Ideologies, and Partisan Divides. Imprints of Programmatic Structure on Latin American Legislatures. En KITSCHELT, Herbert; HAWKINS, Kirk A.; LUNA, Juan Pablo; ROSAS, Guillermo y ZECHMEISTER, Elizabeth J. Latin American Party Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010: 70-95.
RUESCHEMEYER, Dietrich; HUBER STEPHENS, Evelyne y STEPHENS, John D. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992.
SARTORI, Giovanni. The Sociology of Parties. A Critical Review. En STAMMER, Otto. Party Systems, Party Organizations, and the Politics of New Masses, Beiträge zur 3. Internationalen Konferenz über Vergleichende Politische Soziologie, Berlin, 15.-20. Januar 1968. Berlin: Institut für politische Wissenschaft an der Freien Universität Berlin, 1968: 1-25.
SCHATTSCHNEIDER, Elmer Eric. The Semisovereign People. A Realist’s View of Democracy in America. London: Wadsworth, 1975 [1960].
SCULLY, Timothy R. Rethinking the Center. Party Politics in Nineteenthand Twentieth-Century Chile. Stanford, 1992.
SCULLY, Timothy R. Reconstituting Party Politics in Chile. En MAINWARING, Scott y SCULLY, Timothy R. Building Democratic Institutions. Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995: 100-137.
SHEFTER, Martin. Party and Patronage: Germany, England, and Italy. Politics & Society, 1977, (7): 403-451.
SHEFTER, Martin. Political Parties and the State. The American Historical Experience. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
SLATER, Dan y SIMMONS, Erica. Informative Regress: Critical Antecedents in Comparative Politics. Comparative Political Studies, 2010, vol. 43 (7): 886-917. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414010361343
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