Archaeometric Study of Pictorial Stratigraphies from a Togatus Roman Sculpture found in Salamanca (Spain)
Abstract The decoration of a togatus Roman sculpture found in Salamanca in 2015 has been examined to identify the applied pigments. The study was performed using environmental scanning electron microscopy –ESEM– with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyser –ESEM-EDX– and Raman spectroscopy –RS– in microscopic mode. The ESEM-EDX analyser allowed the elemental chemical composition of the samples to be established, the concentration and distribution of each element in areas and cross-sections to be determined, and predefined concentration profiles in the pictorial stratum to be obtained. The ionic or molecular phases of the components in the pictorial material were identified by Raman spectroscopy. Therefore, the pigments that make up the pictorial palette of this artwork, such as iron oxides or carbon black, have been ascertained by means of these complementary techniques. The structural substrate, as well as the chemical nature of the dispersing/priming materials for the colourants, have been additionally characterised. Silica and aluminosilicates have been found to be present in combination with both the iron oxides and carbon black.
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Abbe, M. (2015): “Polychromy”. In Friedland, E. A.; Sobocinski, M. G. and Gazda, E. K. (eds.): The Oxford handbook of Roman sculpture. Oxford: OUP, pp. 173-188. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199921829.013.0012
Abbe, M. (2020): “Politura and Polychromy on Ancient Marble Sculpture”, CLARA: Classical Art and Archaeology, 1, pp. 1-21.
Baraldi, P.; Baraldi, C.; Curina, R.; Tassi, L. and Zannini, P. (2007): “A micro-Raman archaeometric approach to Roman wall paintings”, Vibrational Spectroscopy, 43 (2), pp. 420-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2006.04.029
Beltrán, J.; Loza, M. L.; Odriozola, C.; Santos, J. M. and Beladiez, R. (2018): “Análisis de la policromía de un togado romano de Osuna (Sevilla)”. In Beltrán, J.; Loza, M. L. and Ontiveros-Ortega, E. (eds.): Marmora Baeticae: Uso de materiales pétreos en la Bética romana. Estudios arqueológicos y análisis arqueométricos. Sevilla: Univ. de Sevilla, pp. 275-287.
Bersani, D. and Lottici, P. P. (2016): “Raman spectroscopy of minerals and mineral pigments in archaeometry”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 47 (5), pp. 499-530. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.4914
Boschetti, C.; Corradi, A. and Baraldi, P. (2008): “Raman characterization of painted mortar in Republican Roman mosaics”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 39 (April), pp. 1085-1090. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1970
Bradley, M. (2009): Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: CUP.
Brøns, C. and Harlow, M. (2020): “White men and rainbow women: gendered colour coding in roman dress”. In Harlow, M.; Michel, C. and Quillien, L. (eds.): Textiles and Gender in Antiquity: From the Orient to the Mediterranean. London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 219-240.
Brøns, C. and Skovmøller, A. (2017): “Colour-Coding the Roman Toga”, Antike Kunst, 60, pp. 55-79. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26663658
Burón, M.; Barrera, M.; Sánchez, I.; Escudero, C.; Alonso, J. L.; Pérez, P. P. and Navarro, J. V. (2016): “Caracterización y recreación de la policromía de la ‘Diosa Fortuna’ procedente del Teatro Romano de Clunia (Burgos)”. In Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 209-216.
Campbell, L. (2020a): “Monuments on the margins of Empire: the Antonine Wall sculptures”. In The Antonine Wall: Papers in Honour of Prof. L. Keppie. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 96-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/00665983.2007.11770990
Campbell, L. (2020b): “Polychromy on the Antonine Wall Distance Sculptures: Non-destructive Identification of Pigments on Roman Reliefs”, Britannia, 51, pp. 175-201. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068113X20000124
Cardell, C. and Guerra, I. (2016): “An overview of emerging hyphenated SEM-EDX and Raman spectroscopy systems: Applications in life, environmental and materials sciences”, TrAC-Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 77, pp. 156-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2015.12.001
Claridge, A. (2011): “Looking for Colour on Greek and Roman Sculpture”, Journal of Art Historiography, 5 (1). http://www.claridges.co.uk/
Clark, R. J. H. and Gibbs, P. J. (1997): “Non-destructive in situ study of ancient Egyptian faience by Raman microscopy”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 28 (2-3), pp. 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4555(199702)28:2/3<99::aid-jrs75>3.0.co;2-u
Cosano, D.; Mateos, L. D.; Jiménez-Sanchidrián, C. and Ruiz, J. R. (2017): “Identification by Raman microspectroscopy of pigments in seated statues found in the Torreparedones Roman archaeological site (Baena, Spain)”, Microchemical Journal, 130, pp. 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2016.09.003
De Benedetto, G. E.; Nicolì, S.; Pennetta, A.; Rizzo, D.; Sabbatini, L. and Mangone, A. (2011): “An integrated spectroscopic approach to investigate pigments and engobes on pre-Roman pottery”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 42 (6), pp. 1317-1323. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.2845
De Faria, D. L. A. and Lopes, F. N. (2007): “Heated goethite and natural hematite: Can Raman spectroscopy be used to differentiate them?”, Vibrational Spectroscopy, 45 (2), pp. 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2007.07.003
De Faria, D. L. A.; Venâncio Silva, S. and De Oliveira, M. T. (1997): “Raman microspectroscopy of some iron oxides and oxyhydroxides”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 28 (11), pp. 873-878. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4555(199 711)28:11<873::aid-jrs177>3.3.co;2-2
De La Pierre, M.; Carteret, C.; Maschio, L.; André, E.; Orlando, R. and Dovesi, R. (2014): “The Raman spectrum of CaCO3 polymorphs calcite and aragonite: A combined experimental and computational study”, Journal of Chemical Physics, 140 (16). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4871900
Edwards, H. G. M. (2015): “Historical Pigments: A Survey of Analytical Chemical Archaeometric Usage and Terminology for Forensic Art Analysis”. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, pp. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470027318.a9527
Edwards, H. G. M.; Middleton, P. S. and Hargreaves, M. D. (2009): “Romano-British wall paintings: Raman spectroscopic analysis of fragments from two urban sites of early military colonisation”, Spectrochimica Acta-Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 73 (3), pp. 553-560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.10.027
Fostiridou, A.; Karapanagiotis, I.; Vivdenko, S.; Lampakis, D.; Mantzouris, D.; Achilara, L. and Manoudis, P. (2016): “Identification of Pigments in Hellenistic and Roman Funeral Figurines”, Archaeometry, 58 (3), pp. 453-464. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12177
Franquelo, M. L.; Durán, A.; Herrera, L. K.; Jiménez de Haro, M. C. and Pérez-Rodríguez, J. L. (2009): “Comparison between micro-Raman and micro-FTIR spectroscopy techniques for the characterization of pigments from Southern Spain Cultural Heritage”, Journal of Molecular Structure, 924-926 (C), pp. 404-412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2008.11.041
Freeman, J. J.; Wang, A.; Kuebler, K. E.; Jolliff, B. L. and Haskin, L. A. (2008): “Characterization of natural feldspars by raman spectroscopy for future planetary exploration”, Canadian Mineralogist, 46 (6), pp. 1477-1500. https://doi.org/10.3749/canmin.46.6.1477
Ganetsos, T.; Regkli, A.; Laskaris, N. and Liritzis, I. (2019): “Spectroscopic study of colour traces in marble sculptures and architectural parts of monuments of archaic period in Delphi, Greece”, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 19 (3), pp. 51-61. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3457526
Gunasekaran, S.; Anbalagan, G. and Pandi, S. (2006): “Raman and infrared spectra of carbonates of calcite structure”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 37 (9), pp. 892-899. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1518
Hanesch, M. (2009): “Raman spectroscopy of iron oxides and (oxy)hydroxides at low laser power and possible applications in environmental magnetic studies”, Geophysical Journal International, 177 (3), pp. 941-948. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04122.x
Jehli?ka, J.; Š?astná, A. and P?ikryl, R. (2009): “Raman spectral characterization of dispersed carbonaceous matter in decorative crystalline limestones”, Spectrochimica Acta-Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 73 (3), pp. 404-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.09.006
Jiménez, M. C. and Rupidera, A. (2016): “Roman Togatus Statue Found in Salamanca”, Studia Historica: Historia Antigua, 34, pp. 139-165.
Jorge-Villar, S. E.; Rodríguez Temiño, I.; Edwards, H. G. M.; Jiménez Hernández, A.; Ruiz Cecilia, J. I. and Miralles, I. (2018): “The Servilia tomb: an architecturally and pictorially important Roman building”, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 10 (5), pp. 1207-1223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0450-9
Krishnamurti, D. (1958): “The Raman spectrum of quartz and its interpretation”. In Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Section A, vol. 47, pp. 276-277.
Liverani, P. (2016): “La quarta dimensione della scultura: il colore”. In Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 107-124.
Martín Valls, R.; Benet, N. and Macarro, C. (1991): “Arqueología de Salamanca”. In Santonja, M. (ed.): Del Paleolítico a la Historia. Salamanca: Museo de Salamanca, pp. 137-163.
Matson, D. W.; Sharma, S. K. and Philpotts, J. A. (1986): “Raman spectra of some tectosilicates and of glasses along the orthoclase-anorthite and nepheline-anorthite joins”, American Mineralogist, 71, pp. 694-704.
McKeown, D. A. (2005). “Raman spectroscopy and vibrational analyses of albite: From 25 °C through the melting temperature”, American Mineralogist, 90 (10), pp. 1506-1517. https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2005.1726
Noguera, J. M. (2002). “Técnicas en la escultura romana: materiales, imprimaciones y coloraciones. A propósito del grupo escultórico de Mazarrón”, Anales de Prehistoria y Arqueología, 17-18, pp. 373-412.
Østergaard, J. S. (2009): “The CPN Main Project 2008-2011: an outline”. In Østergaard, J. S. (ed.): Tracking Colour-The polychromy of Greek and Roman sculpture in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Copenhagen: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, pp. 68-73.
Østergaard, J. S. (2020): “Reflections on the Typology and Context of the Richmond Caligula”. In Schertz, P. J. M. and Frischer, B. (eds.): New Studies on the Portrait of Caligula in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Col. Monumenta Graeca et Romana, 26. Leiden-Boston: Brill, pp. 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004417366_007
Pinto, J.; Prieto, A. C.; Coria?Noguera, J. C.; Sanz?Mínguez, C. and Souto, J. (2020): “Investigating glass beads and the funerary rituals of ancient Vaccaei culture (ss. IV-I BC) by Raman spectroscopy”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, November, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.6049
Sadezky, A.; Muckenhuber, H.; Grothe, H.; Niessner, R. and Pöschl, U. (2005): “Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: Spectral analysis and structural information”, Carbon, 43 (8), pp. 1731-1742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.02.018
Salinas de Frías, M.; Jiménez, M. C. and Nogales, T. (2016): “Personaje togado y espacio público de Salmantica”. En Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 553-576.
Scott, J. F. and Porto, S. P. S. (1967): “Longitudinal and transverse optical lattice vibrations in quartz”, Physical Review, 161 (3), pp. 903-910. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.161.903
Shebanova, O. N. and Lazor, P. (2003a): “Raman spectroscopic study of magnetite (FeFe2O4): A new assignment for the vibrational spectrum”, Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 174 (2), pp. 424-430. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4596(03)00294-9
Shebanova, O. N. and Lazor, P. (2003b): “Raman study of magnetite (Fe3O4): Laser-induced thermal effects and oxidation”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 34 (11), pp. 845-852. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1056
Verri, G.; Opper, T. and Deviese, T. (2010): “The ‘Treu Head’: a case study in Roman sculptural polychromy”, Technical Research Bulletin, 4, pp. 39-54.
Abbe, M. (2020): “Politura and Polychromy on Ancient Marble Sculpture”, CLARA: Classical Art and Archaeology, 1, pp. 1-21.
Baraldi, P.; Baraldi, C.; Curina, R.; Tassi, L. and Zannini, P. (2007): “A micro-Raman archaeometric approach to Roman wall paintings”, Vibrational Spectroscopy, 43 (2), pp. 420-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2006.04.029
Beltrán, J.; Loza, M. L.; Odriozola, C.; Santos, J. M. and Beladiez, R. (2018): “Análisis de la policromía de un togado romano de Osuna (Sevilla)”. In Beltrán, J.; Loza, M. L. and Ontiveros-Ortega, E. (eds.): Marmora Baeticae: Uso de materiales pétreos en la Bética romana. Estudios arqueológicos y análisis arqueométricos. Sevilla: Univ. de Sevilla, pp. 275-287.
Bersani, D. and Lottici, P. P. (2016): “Raman spectroscopy of minerals and mineral pigments in archaeometry”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 47 (5), pp. 499-530. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.4914
Boschetti, C.; Corradi, A. and Baraldi, P. (2008): “Raman characterization of painted mortar in Republican Roman mosaics”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 39 (April), pp. 1085-1090. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1970
Bradley, M. (2009): Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: CUP.
Brøns, C. and Harlow, M. (2020): “White men and rainbow women: gendered colour coding in roman dress”. In Harlow, M.; Michel, C. and Quillien, L. (eds.): Textiles and Gender in Antiquity: From the Orient to the Mediterranean. London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 219-240.
Brøns, C. and Skovmøller, A. (2017): “Colour-Coding the Roman Toga”, Antike Kunst, 60, pp. 55-79. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26663658
Burón, M.; Barrera, M.; Sánchez, I.; Escudero, C.; Alonso, J. L.; Pérez, P. P. and Navarro, J. V. (2016): “Caracterización y recreación de la policromía de la ‘Diosa Fortuna’ procedente del Teatro Romano de Clunia (Burgos)”. In Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 209-216.
Campbell, L. (2020a): “Monuments on the margins of Empire: the Antonine Wall sculptures”. In The Antonine Wall: Papers in Honour of Prof. L. Keppie. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 96-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/00665983.2007.11770990
Campbell, L. (2020b): “Polychromy on the Antonine Wall Distance Sculptures: Non-destructive Identification of Pigments on Roman Reliefs”, Britannia, 51, pp. 175-201. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068113X20000124
Cardell, C. and Guerra, I. (2016): “An overview of emerging hyphenated SEM-EDX and Raman spectroscopy systems: Applications in life, environmental and materials sciences”, TrAC-Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 77, pp. 156-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2015.12.001
Claridge, A. (2011): “Looking for Colour on Greek and Roman Sculpture”, Journal of Art Historiography, 5 (1). http://www.claridges.co.uk/
Clark, R. J. H. and Gibbs, P. J. (1997): “Non-destructive in situ study of ancient Egyptian faience by Raman microscopy”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 28 (2-3), pp. 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4555(199702)28:2/3<99::aid-jrs75>3.0.co;2-u
Cosano, D.; Mateos, L. D.; Jiménez-Sanchidrián, C. and Ruiz, J. R. (2017): “Identification by Raman microspectroscopy of pigments in seated statues found in the Torreparedones Roman archaeological site (Baena, Spain)”, Microchemical Journal, 130, pp. 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2016.09.003
De Benedetto, G. E.; Nicolì, S.; Pennetta, A.; Rizzo, D.; Sabbatini, L. and Mangone, A. (2011): “An integrated spectroscopic approach to investigate pigments and engobes on pre-Roman pottery”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 42 (6), pp. 1317-1323. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.2845
De Faria, D. L. A. and Lopes, F. N. (2007): “Heated goethite and natural hematite: Can Raman spectroscopy be used to differentiate them?”, Vibrational Spectroscopy, 45 (2), pp. 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vibspec.2007.07.003
De Faria, D. L. A.; Venâncio Silva, S. and De Oliveira, M. T. (1997): “Raman microspectroscopy of some iron oxides and oxyhydroxides”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 28 (11), pp. 873-878. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4555(199 711)28:11<873::aid-jrs177>3.3.co;2-2
De La Pierre, M.; Carteret, C.; Maschio, L.; André, E.; Orlando, R. and Dovesi, R. (2014): “The Raman spectrum of CaCO3 polymorphs calcite and aragonite: A combined experimental and computational study”, Journal of Chemical Physics, 140 (16). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4871900
Edwards, H. G. M. (2015): “Historical Pigments: A Survey of Analytical Chemical Archaeometric Usage and Terminology for Forensic Art Analysis”. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, pp. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470027318.a9527
Edwards, H. G. M.; Middleton, P. S. and Hargreaves, M. D. (2009): “Romano-British wall paintings: Raman spectroscopic analysis of fragments from two urban sites of early military colonisation”, Spectrochimica Acta-Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 73 (3), pp. 553-560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.10.027
Fostiridou, A.; Karapanagiotis, I.; Vivdenko, S.; Lampakis, D.; Mantzouris, D.; Achilara, L. and Manoudis, P. (2016): “Identification of Pigments in Hellenistic and Roman Funeral Figurines”, Archaeometry, 58 (3), pp. 453-464. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12177
Franquelo, M. L.; Durán, A.; Herrera, L. K.; Jiménez de Haro, M. C. and Pérez-Rodríguez, J. L. (2009): “Comparison between micro-Raman and micro-FTIR spectroscopy techniques for the characterization of pigments from Southern Spain Cultural Heritage”, Journal of Molecular Structure, 924-926 (C), pp. 404-412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2008.11.041
Freeman, J. J.; Wang, A.; Kuebler, K. E.; Jolliff, B. L. and Haskin, L. A. (2008): “Characterization of natural feldspars by raman spectroscopy for future planetary exploration”, Canadian Mineralogist, 46 (6), pp. 1477-1500. https://doi.org/10.3749/canmin.46.6.1477
Ganetsos, T.; Regkli, A.; Laskaris, N. and Liritzis, I. (2019): “Spectroscopic study of colour traces in marble sculptures and architectural parts of monuments of archaic period in Delphi, Greece”, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 19 (3), pp. 51-61. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3457526
Gunasekaran, S.; Anbalagan, G. and Pandi, S. (2006): “Raman and infrared spectra of carbonates of calcite structure”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 37 (9), pp. 892-899. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1518
Hanesch, M. (2009): “Raman spectroscopy of iron oxides and (oxy)hydroxides at low laser power and possible applications in environmental magnetic studies”, Geophysical Journal International, 177 (3), pp. 941-948. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04122.x
Jehli?ka, J.; Š?astná, A. and P?ikryl, R. (2009): “Raman spectral characterization of dispersed carbonaceous matter in decorative crystalline limestones”, Spectrochimica Acta-Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 73 (3), pp. 404-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.09.006
Jiménez, M. C. and Rupidera, A. (2016): “Roman Togatus Statue Found in Salamanca”, Studia Historica: Historia Antigua, 34, pp. 139-165.
Jorge-Villar, S. E.; Rodríguez Temiño, I.; Edwards, H. G. M.; Jiménez Hernández, A.; Ruiz Cecilia, J. I. and Miralles, I. (2018): “The Servilia tomb: an architecturally and pictorially important Roman building”, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 10 (5), pp. 1207-1223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0450-9
Krishnamurti, D. (1958): “The Raman spectrum of quartz and its interpretation”. In Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Section A, vol. 47, pp. 276-277.
Liverani, P. (2016): “La quarta dimensione della scultura: il colore”. In Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 107-124.
Martín Valls, R.; Benet, N. and Macarro, C. (1991): “Arqueología de Salamanca”. In Santonja, M. (ed.): Del Paleolítico a la Historia. Salamanca: Museo de Salamanca, pp. 137-163.
Matson, D. W.; Sharma, S. K. and Philpotts, J. A. (1986): “Raman spectra of some tectosilicates and of glasses along the orthoclase-anorthite and nepheline-anorthite joins”, American Mineralogist, 71, pp. 694-704.
McKeown, D. A. (2005). “Raman spectroscopy and vibrational analyses of albite: From 25 °C through the melting temperature”, American Mineralogist, 90 (10), pp. 1506-1517. https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2005.1726
Noguera, J. M. (2002). “Técnicas en la escultura romana: materiales, imprimaciones y coloraciones. A propósito del grupo escultórico de Mazarrón”, Anales de Prehistoria y Arqueología, 17-18, pp. 373-412.
Østergaard, J. S. (2009): “The CPN Main Project 2008-2011: an outline”. In Østergaard, J. S. (ed.): Tracking Colour-The polychromy of Greek and Roman sculpture in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Copenhagen: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, pp. 68-73.
Østergaard, J. S. (2020): “Reflections on the Typology and Context of the Richmond Caligula”. In Schertz, P. J. M. and Frischer, B. (eds.): New Studies on the Portrait of Caligula in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Col. Monumenta Graeca et Romana, 26. Leiden-Boston: Brill, pp. 50-54. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004417366_007
Pinto, J.; Prieto, A. C.; Coria?Noguera, J. C.; Sanz?Mínguez, C. and Souto, J. (2020): “Investigating glass beads and the funerary rituals of ancient Vaccaei culture (ss. IV-I BC) by Raman spectroscopy”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, November, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.6049
Sadezky, A.; Muckenhuber, H.; Grothe, H.; Niessner, R. and Pöschl, U. (2005): “Raman microspectroscopy of soot and related carbonaceous materials: Spectral analysis and structural information”, Carbon, 43 (8), pp. 1731-1742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.02.018
Salinas de Frías, M.; Jiménez, M. C. and Nogales, T. (2016): “Personaje togado y espacio público de Salmantica”. En Márquez, C. and Ojeda, D. (eds.): Actas VIII Reunión de Escultura Romana en Hispania. Córdoba, pp. 553-576.
Scott, J. F. and Porto, S. P. S. (1967): “Longitudinal and transverse optical lattice vibrations in quartz”, Physical Review, 161 (3), pp. 903-910. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.161.903
Shebanova, O. N. and Lazor, P. (2003a): “Raman spectroscopic study of magnetite (FeFe2O4): A new assignment for the vibrational spectrum”, Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 174 (2), pp. 424-430. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4596(03)00294-9
Shebanova, O. N. and Lazor, P. (2003b): “Raman study of magnetite (Fe3O4): Laser-induced thermal effects and oxidation”, Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 34 (11), pp. 845-852. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrs.1056
Verri, G.; Opper, T. and Deviese, T. (2010): “The ‘Treu Head’: a case study in Roman sculptural polychromy”, Technical Research Bulletin, 4, pp. 39-54.
Souto, J. ., Pinto, J. ., Carmelo Prieto, Ángel ., Barrera, M., Carlos Jiménez, M. ., & Salinas, A. (2022). Archaeometric Study of Pictorial Stratigraphies from a Togatus Roman Sculpture found in Salamanca (Spain). Zephyrvs, 88, 193–207. https://doi.org/10.14201/zephyrus202188193207
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