Do I mean what I say and say what I mean? A cross cultural ap-proach to the use of emoticons & emojis in CMC messages
Abstract The use of emoticons and emojis among online messaging users has achieved a globalized level. This article aims at examining how certain emojis and emoticons are chosen by message senders to regular the intensity of emotions in their messages. Or, by means of using them, message senders wish to blur textual rigidity and show interaction empathy during the communication process. This study analyzes the use of these symbols and graphic elements in message exchange through CMC and SNS, where users from different culture background convey their feeling. For it, two empirical studies of a methodological design were carried out: One pilot study was intended for the research instrument validation. The second was a survey study. By testing online messaging habit, this study enabled the researchers to observe whether the senders inclined to linguistic text use only, or they preferred including an additional emoticon or emoji in their message to communicate their feelings. Results of this research show that, at a certain extent, massage senders’ different culture background could influence on their emotional expressivity level.
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Adrianson, L. (2001). Gender and computer-mediated communication: Group processes in prob-lem, Computers in Human Behavior, 17(1):71-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00033-9
Amaghlobeli, N. (2012). Linguistic features of typographic emoticons in SMS discourse, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2 (2), pp. 348-354. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.2.348-354
Constantin, C., Kalyanaraman, S., Stavrositu, C. & Wagoner, N. (2002). To be or not to be emo-tional: Impression formation effects of emoticons in moderated chatrooms. Paper presented at the Communication Technology and Policy Division at the 85th Annual Convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Miami Beach, Florida, in 2002 August (Fecha consulta el 08.11. 2015).
Crystle, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139164771
Derks, D., Fischer, A. H. y Bos A. E. R. (2007). The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review. Computers in Human Behavior, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.04.004. (Fecha consulta el 09. 12. 2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.04.004
Dresner, E. & Herring, S. C. (2010), Functions of the nonverbal in CMC: Emoticons and illocu-tionary Force. Communication Theory, 20, pp. 249-268. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01362.x (Fecha consulta el 19. 12. 2015). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01362.x
Duggan, B. U. M. & Smith, A. (2013). Social media update 2013. Pew Research Internet Project, 7-9.
Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48(4), pp. 384-392. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.4.384
Ekman, P. y Oster H. (1997). Expresiones faciales de la emoción, Annual Review of Psychology, 30, pp. 527-554. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.30.020179.002523
Ellensburg, R. (2012). Emoticons as social information: The effect of emoticons on interpersonal perception in computer-mediated business communication. TFM de programa de investigación en psicología, Universidad de Amsterdam. Disponible en:
Fahlman, S. E. (1982). Smiley Lore :-) (inédito). https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm (Fecha de recuperación, el 10. 06. 2015).
Fernández, I., Zubieta, E. & Páez, D. (2000). Expresión e inhibición emocional en diferentes cultu-ras. En D. Páez & M. M. Casullo (Comps.), Cultura y alexitimia: ¿Cómo expresamos aquello que sentimos? (pp. 73-98). Buenos Aires: Paidós.
Ferris, S. (1996). Women on-line: Cultural and relational aspects of women's communication in on-line discussion. Interpersonal Computing and Technology, vol. 4(3-4), pp. 29-40. Disponible en: http://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/1996/n3/ferris.txt (Fecha de consulta, el 08. 08. 2015).
Gudykunst, W. B. (1997). Cultural variability in communication: An introduction. Communication Research, 2(4), pp. 327-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365097024004001
Gudykunst, W. B., Lee, C. M., Nishida, T. & Ogawa, N. (2005). Theorizing about intercutural communica-tion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K. & Heyman, S. (1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. Human Communication Research, 22(4), pp. 510-543. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1996.tb00377.x
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences. Germans French and Americans (Vol. 54). Dispoinble en http://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.28-2221. (Fecha consulta el 14. 09. 2008). https://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.28-2221
Hofstede, G. & Bond, M. H. (1984). Hofstede's culture dimensions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(4), pp. 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002184015004003
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M. (2010). Culture and organizations: Soft ware of the mind. International cooperation and its importance for survival. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Huffaker, D. A. & Calvert, S. L. (2006). Gender, identity and language use in teenage blogs. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 10(2), DOI: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00238 (Fecha con-sulta, el 20. 08. 2017)
Jenson, S. (2005). Default thinking: Why consumer products fail. In R. Harper, A. Taylor, & L. Palen (Eds.), The inside text: Social perspectives on SMS in the mobile age. pp 305-325 London: Kluwer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3060-6_17
Jibril, T. A. & Abdullah, M. H. (2013). Relevance of emoticons in computer mediated communica-tion contexts: An overview. Asian Social Science, 9(4), pp. 201-207. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n4p201
Kasensniemi, E. L. & Rautiainen, P. (2002). Mobile culture of children and teenagers in Finland. N. Y.: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, C. (2003). How does instant messaging affect interaction between the genders? Stanford, CA: The Mercury Project for Instant Messaging Studies at Stanford University. Disponible en:
Ling, R. (2005). Mobile communication vis-à-vis teen emancipation, peer group integration and deviance. In R. Harper, A. Taylor, & L. Palen (Eds.), The inside text: Social perspectives on SMS in the mobile age (pp. 175–189). London: Kluwer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3060-6_10
Lo, S. (2008). The nonverbal communication functions of emoticons in computer-mediated communication. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 11 (5), pp. 595-597. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0132
Páez, D., Fernández, I., Ubillos, S. y Zubieta, E.(eds.) (2004): Psicología social, cultura y educación. Madrid: Pearson Educación.
Provine, R. R., Spencer, R. J. & Mandell, D. L. (2007). Emotional expression online: Emoticons punctuate website text messages, Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 26, pp. 299-307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X06303481
Ptaszynski, M., MacIejewski, J., Dybala, P., Rzepka, R. & Araki, K. (2010). CAO: A fully automatic emoticon analysis system based on theory of kinesics. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 1(1), pp. 46-59. https://doi.org/10.1109/T-AFFC.2010.3
Qiao, Q. (2010). The adoption and use of SMS among Chinese teenagers. Memoire: Universite de Montreal. Disponible en: https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/3554 (Fecha consulta, el 06. 02. 2016).
Rezabek, L. L. & Cochenour, J. J. (1998). Visual cues in computer-mediated communication: Supplementing text with emoticons. Journal of Visual Literacy, 18, pp. 201-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/23796529.1998.11674539
Thompson, P. A. & Foulger, D. A. (1996). Effects of pictographs and quoting on flaming in elec-tronic mail. Computer in Human Behavior, 12, pp. 225-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(96)00004-0
Tossell, Ch. C., Kortum, P., Shepherd, C., Barg-Walkow, L. H., Rahmati, A. & Zhong, L. (2012). A longitudinal study of emoticon use in text messaging from smartphones, Computer in Human Behavior, 28, pp. 659-663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.012
Vilà-Ba-os, R., Rubio-Hurtado, M.J., Berlanga.Silvente, V.y Torrado-Fonseca, M. (2014). Cómo aplicar un cluster jerárquico en SPSS, REIRR, 7(1), pp 113-127.
Walter, J. B. & D'Addario, K. P. (2001). The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communication. Social Science Computer Review. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/089443930101900307
Amaghlobeli, N. (2012). Linguistic features of typographic emoticons in SMS discourse, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2 (2), pp. 348-354. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.2.348-354
Constantin, C., Kalyanaraman, S., Stavrositu, C. & Wagoner, N. (2002). To be or not to be emo-tional: Impression formation effects of emoticons in moderated chatrooms. Paper presented at the Communication Technology and Policy Division at the 85th Annual Convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Miami Beach, Florida, in 2002 August (Fecha consulta el 08.11. 2015).
Crystle, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139164771
Derks, D., Fischer, A. H. y Bos A. E. R. (2007). The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review. Computers in Human Behavior, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.04.004. (Fecha consulta el 09. 12. 2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.04.004
Dresner, E. & Herring, S. C. (2010), Functions of the nonverbal in CMC: Emoticons and illocu-tionary Force. Communication Theory, 20, pp. 249-268. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01362.x (Fecha consulta el 19. 12. 2015). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01362.x
Duggan, B. U. M. & Smith, A. (2013). Social media update 2013. Pew Research Internet Project, 7-9.
Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48(4), pp. 384-392. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.4.384
Ekman, P. y Oster H. (1997). Expresiones faciales de la emoción, Annual Review of Psychology, 30, pp. 527-554. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.30.020179.002523
Ellensburg, R. (2012). Emoticons as social information: The effect of emoticons on interpersonal perception in computer-mediated business communication. TFM de programa de investigación en psicología, Universidad de Amsterdam. Disponible en:
Fahlman, S. E. (1982). Smiley Lore :-) (inédito). https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm (Fecha de recuperación, el 10. 06. 2015).
Fernández, I., Zubieta, E. & Páez, D. (2000). Expresión e inhibición emocional en diferentes cultu-ras. En D. Páez & M. M. Casullo (Comps.), Cultura y alexitimia: ¿Cómo expresamos aquello que sentimos? (pp. 73-98). Buenos Aires: Paidós.
Ferris, S. (1996). Women on-line: Cultural and relational aspects of women's communication in on-line discussion. Interpersonal Computing and Technology, vol. 4(3-4), pp. 29-40. Disponible en: http://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/1996/n3/ferris.txt (Fecha de consulta, el 08. 08. 2015).
Gudykunst, W. B. (1997). Cultural variability in communication: An introduction. Communication Research, 2(4), pp. 327-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365097024004001
Gudykunst, W. B., Lee, C. M., Nishida, T. & Ogawa, N. (2005). Theorizing about intercutural communica-tion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K. & Heyman, S. (1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. Human Communication Research, 22(4), pp. 510-543. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1996.tb00377.x
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences. Germans French and Americans (Vol. 54). Dispoinble en http://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.28-2221. (Fecha consulta el 14. 09. 2008). https://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.28-2221
Hofstede, G. & Bond, M. H. (1984). Hofstede's culture dimensions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(4), pp. 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002184015004003
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M. (2010). Culture and organizations: Soft ware of the mind. International cooperation and its importance for survival. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Huffaker, D. A. & Calvert, S. L. (2006). Gender, identity and language use in teenage blogs. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 10(2), DOI: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00238 (Fecha con-sulta, el 20. 08. 2017)
Jenson, S. (2005). Default thinking: Why consumer products fail. In R. Harper, A. Taylor, & L. Palen (Eds.), The inside text: Social perspectives on SMS in the mobile age. pp 305-325 London: Kluwer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3060-6_17
Jibril, T. A. & Abdullah, M. H. (2013). Relevance of emoticons in computer mediated communica-tion contexts: An overview. Asian Social Science, 9(4), pp. 201-207. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n4p201
Kasensniemi, E. L. & Rautiainen, P. (2002). Mobile culture of children and teenagers in Finland. N. Y.: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, C. (2003). How does instant messaging affect interaction between the genders? Stanford, CA: The Mercury Project for Instant Messaging Studies at Stanford University. Disponible en:
Ling, R. (2005). Mobile communication vis-à-vis teen emancipation, peer group integration and deviance. In R. Harper, A. Taylor, & L. Palen (Eds.), The inside text: Social perspectives on SMS in the mobile age (pp. 175–189). London: Kluwer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3060-6_10
Lo, S. (2008). The nonverbal communication functions of emoticons in computer-mediated communication. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 11 (5), pp. 595-597. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0132
Páez, D., Fernández, I., Ubillos, S. y Zubieta, E.(eds.) (2004): Psicología social, cultura y educación. Madrid: Pearson Educación.
Provine, R. R., Spencer, R. J. & Mandell, D. L. (2007). Emotional expression online: Emoticons punctuate website text messages, Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 26, pp. 299-307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X06303481
Ptaszynski, M., MacIejewski, J., Dybala, P., Rzepka, R. & Araki, K. (2010). CAO: A fully automatic emoticon analysis system based on theory of kinesics. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 1(1), pp. 46-59. https://doi.org/10.1109/T-AFFC.2010.3
Qiao, Q. (2010). The adoption and use of SMS among Chinese teenagers. Memoire: Universite de Montreal. Disponible en: https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/3554 (Fecha consulta, el 06. 02. 2016).
Rezabek, L. L. & Cochenour, J. J. (1998). Visual cues in computer-mediated communication: Supplementing text with emoticons. Journal of Visual Literacy, 18, pp. 201-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/23796529.1998.11674539
Thompson, P. A. & Foulger, D. A. (1996). Effects of pictographs and quoting on flaming in elec-tronic mail. Computer in Human Behavior, 12, pp. 225-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(96)00004-0
Tossell, Ch. C., Kortum, P., Shepherd, C., Barg-Walkow, L. H., Rahmati, A. & Zhong, L. (2012). A longitudinal study of emoticon use in text messaging from smartphones, Computer in Human Behavior, 28, pp. 659-663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.012
Vilà-Ba-os, R., Rubio-Hurtado, M.J., Berlanga.Silvente, V.y Torrado-Fonseca, M. (2014). Cómo aplicar un cluster jerárquico en SPSS, REIRR, 7(1), pp 113-127.
Walter, J. B. & D'Addario, K. P. (2001). The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communication. Social Science Computer Review. Disponible en: https://doi.org/10.1177/089443930101900307
Cheng, L. (2017). Do I mean what I say and say what I mean? A cross cultural ap-proach to the use of emoticons & emojis in CMC messages. Fonseca, Journal of Communication, 15(15), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.14201/fjc201715199217
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