Polarización afectiva y compromiso democrático en Brasil: una prueba crítica de la tolerancia política
Resumen
La polarización política socava el apoyo democrático creando condiciones donde los votantes aceptan violaciones de normas y violencia política. Este artículo examina el compromiso democrático de votantes brasileños en 2023, tras alcanzar su punto máximo de polarización con los ataques del 8 de enero. Mediante datos de encuesta, aplicamos tres pruebas de rigor creciente: apoyo explícito, adhesión a principios y tolerancia política. Los resultados revelan apoyo abstracto a la democracia, pero baja tolerancia hacia oponentes, especialmente entre bolsonaristas, comprometiendo la adhesión a principios democráticos complejos.
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Areal, J. (2022). «Them» without «us»: negative identities and affective polarization in Brazil. Political Research Exchange, 4, Article 2117635. https://doi.org/10.1080/2474736X.2022.2117635
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Borba, J., & Cardoso, G.R. (2021). Legitimidade democrática e apoio político: inovações recentes no debate internacional. Opinião Pública, 27, 351-381.
Borba, J., Ribeiro, E., & Fuks, M. (2024). Polarization and ideology: exploring the contextual nature of democratic commitment. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 32, e006.
Borges, A., & Vidigal, R. (2018). Do lulismo ao antipetismo? Polarização, partidarismo e voto nas eleições presidenciais brasileiras. Opinião Pública, 24(1), 53-89.
Chong, D., Citrin, J., & Levy, M. (2022). The realignment of political tolerance in the United States. Perspectives on Politics, 20, 1-22.
Dalton, R. J. (2004). Democratic challenges, democratic choices: The erosion of political support in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A systems analysis of political life. John Wiley and Sons.
Easton, D. (1975). A re-assessment of the concept of political support. British Journal of Political Science, 5(4), 435-457.
Ferrín, M., & Kriesi, H. (2016). Introduction: Democracy – The European verdict. En: Ferrín, M.; Kriesi, H. (Eds.). How Europeans view and evaluate democracy. Oxford University Press, 1-21.
Fuks, M., & Marques, P. H. (2022). Polarização e contexto: medindo e explicando a polarização política no Brasil. Opinião Pública, 28(3), 560-593.
Gandhi, J., & Ong, E. (2019). Committed or conditional democrats? Opposition dynamics in electoral autocracies. American Journal of Political Science, 63(4), 948-963.
Gibson, J., & Duch, R. (1993). Support for rights in Western Europe and the Soviet Union. Research on Democracy and Society, 1, 241-263.
Gibson, J. L. (2009). Political intolerance in the context of democratic theory. En: Goodin, R.E. (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of political science. Oxford University Press, 1-24.
Graham, M. H., & Svolik, M. W. (2020). Democracy in America? Partisanship, polarization, and the robustness of support for democracy in the United States. American Political Science Review, 114(2), 392-409.
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. (2021). Backsliding: Democratic regress in the contemporary world. Cambridge University Press.
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019). The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 129-146.
Kalmoe, N. P., & Mason, L. (2022). Radical American partisanship: Mapping violent hostility, its causes, and the consequences for democracy. University of Chicago Press.
König, P. D., Siewert, M. B., & Ackermann, K. (2022). Conceptualizing and measuring citizens’ preferences for democracy: Taking stock of three decades of research in a fragmented field. Comparative Political Studies, 55(12), 2015-2049.
Leonardelli, G. J., & Toh, S. M. (2015). Social categorization in intergroup contexts: Three kinds of self-categorization. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(2), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.v9.2
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Marcus, G. E., Sullivan, J. L., Theiss-Morse, E., & Wood, S. J. (1995). With malice toward some: How people make civil liberties judgments. Cambridge University Press.
Mason, L. (2016). A cross-cutting calm: How social sorting drives affective polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80, 351-377.
Mason, L. (2018a). Ideologues without issues: The polarizing consequences of ideological identities. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82, 866-887.
Mason, L. (2018b). Uncivil agreement: How politics became our identity. University of Chicago Press.
Mattes, R. (2018). Support for democracy. En: Thompson, W.R. (Ed.). Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. Oxford University Press.
McCoy, J., Rahman, T., & Somer, M. (2018). Polarization and the global crisis of democracy: common patterns, dynamics, and pernicious consequences for democratic polities. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(1), 16-42.
Moreno, A. (2019). Political cleavages: Issues, parties and the consolidation of democracy. Routledge.
Norris, P. (1999). Critical citizens: Global support for democratic government. Oxford University Press.
Norris, P. (2011). Democratic deficit: Critical citizens revisited. Cambridge University Press.
Nunes, F. & Traumann, T. (2023). Biografia do abismo. HarperCollins.
O’Donnell, G. (2010). Democracia, agencia y estado: Teoría con intención comparativa. Prometeo.
Ortellado, P., Ribeiro, M. M., & Zeine, L. (2022). Existe polarização política no Brasil? Análise das evidências em duas séries de pesquisas de opinião. Opinião Pública, 28(1), 62-91.
Peffley, M., & Rohrschneider, R. (2003). Democratization and political tolerance in seventeen countries: A multi-level model of democratic learning. Political Research Quarterly, 56(3), 243-257.
Petersen, M., Slothuus, R., Stubager, R., & Togeby, L. (2011). Freedom for all? The strength and limits of political tolerance. British Journal of Political Science, 41(3), 581-597.
Prothro, J. W., & Grigg, C. M. (1960). Fundamental principles of democracy: bases of agreement and disagreement. The Journal of Politics, 22, 276-294.
Przeworski, A. (2021). Crises da democracia. Companhia das Letras.
Reiljan, A., Garzia, D., Ferreira da Silva, F., & Trechsel, A. H. (2024). Patterns of affective polarization toward parties and leaders across the democratic world. American Political Science Review, 118(2), 654-670. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423000485
Russo, L., & Areal, J. (2025). Negative partisanship and affective polarization. En: Handbook of affective polarization. Edward Elgar Publishing, 195-210. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035310609.00021
Samuels, D., & Belarmino, K. (2024). Partisan dehumanization in Brazil’s asymmetrically polarized party system. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 16, 3-29.
Samuels, D., Mello, F., & Zucco, C. (2023). Partisan stereotyping and polarization in Brazil. Latin American Politics and Society, 66(2), 47-71.
Samuels, D., & Zucco, C. (2014). The power of partisanship in Brazil: evidence from survey experiments. American Journal of Political Science, 58(1), 212-225.
Samuels, D., & Zucco, C. (2018). Partisans, anti-partisans and voter behavior in Brazil. En: Ames, B. (Ed.). Handbook of Brazilian politics. Routledge, 186-202.
Schedler, A., & Sarsfield, R. (2007). Democrats with adjectives: linking direct and indirect measures of democratic support. European Journal of Political Research, 46(5), 637-659.
Schedler, A. (2023). Rethinking political polarization. Political Science Quarterly, 138(3), 335-359.
Shamir, M. (1991). Political intolerance among masses and elites in Israel: A reevaluation of the elitist theory of democracy. Journal of Politics, 53(4), 1018-1043.
Stouffer, S. A. (1955). Communism, conformity and civil liberties: A cross-section of the nation speaks its mind. Doubleday.
Sullivan, J. L.; Piereson, J.; Marcus, G.E. (1979). An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance: Illusory increases 1950s-1970s. American Political Science Review, 73(3), 781-794.
Sullivan, J. L., Piereson, J., & Marcus, G. E. (1982). Political tolerance and American democracy. University of Chicago Press.
Svolik, M. W. (2019). Polarização versus democracia. Journal of Democracy em Português, 8(2), 5-25.
Svolik, M. W. (2020). When polarization trumps civic virtue: partisan conflict and the subversion of democracy by incumbents. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 15, 3-31.
Torcal, M., & Magalhães, P. (2022). Ideological extremism, perceived party system polarization, and support for democracy. European Political Science Review, 14(2), 188-205.
Zhong, C. B., Phillips, K.W., Leonardelli, G.J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Negational categorization and intergroup behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(6), 793-806. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208315457
Areal, J. (2022). «Them» without «us»: negative identities and affective polarization in Brazil. Political Research Exchange, 4, Article 2117635. https://doi.org/10.1080/2474736X.2022.2117635
Boch, A. (2020). The limits of tolerance: Extreme speakers on campus. Social Problems, 69(1), 143-163.
Booth, J. A., & Seligson, M. A. (2009). The legitimacy puzzle in Latin America: Political support and democracy in eight nations. Cambridge University Press.
Borba, J. (coord.). (2023). As Bases das Clivagens Políticas no Brasil. Base de datos.
Borba, J., & Cardoso, G.R. (2021). Legitimidade democrática e apoio político: inovações recentes no debate internacional. Opinião Pública, 27, 351-381.
Borba, J., Ribeiro, E., & Fuks, M. (2024). Polarization and ideology: exploring the contextual nature of democratic commitment. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 32, e006.
Borges, A., & Vidigal, R. (2018). Do lulismo ao antipetismo? Polarização, partidarismo e voto nas eleições presidenciais brasileiras. Opinião Pública, 24(1), 53-89.
Chong, D., Citrin, J., & Levy, M. (2022). The realignment of political tolerance in the United States. Perspectives on Politics, 20, 1-22.
Dalton, R. J. (2004). Democratic challenges, democratic choices: The erosion of political support in advanced industrial democracies. Oxford University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A systems analysis of political life. John Wiley and Sons.
Easton, D. (1975). A re-assessment of the concept of political support. British Journal of Political Science, 5(4), 435-457.
Ferrín, M., & Kriesi, H. (2016). Introduction: Democracy – The European verdict. En: Ferrín, M.; Kriesi, H. (Eds.). How Europeans view and evaluate democracy. Oxford University Press, 1-21.
Fuks, M., & Marques, P. H. (2022). Polarização e contexto: medindo e explicando a polarização política no Brasil. Opinião Pública, 28(3), 560-593.
Gandhi, J., & Ong, E. (2019). Committed or conditional democrats? Opposition dynamics in electoral autocracies. American Journal of Political Science, 63(4), 948-963.
Gibson, J., & Duch, R. (1993). Support for rights in Western Europe and the Soviet Union. Research on Democracy and Society, 1, 241-263.
Gibson, J. L. (2009). Political intolerance in the context of democratic theory. En: Goodin, R.E. (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of political science. Oxford University Press, 1-24.
Graham, M. H., & Svolik, M. W. (2020). Democracy in America? Partisanship, polarization, and the robustness of support for democracy in the United States. American Political Science Review, 114(2), 392-409.
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. (2021). Backsliding: Democratic regress in the contemporary world. Cambridge University Press.
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019). The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 129-146.
Kalmoe, N. P., & Mason, L. (2022). Radical American partisanship: Mapping violent hostility, its causes, and the consequences for democracy. University of Chicago Press.
König, P. D., Siewert, M. B., & Ackermann, K. (2022). Conceptualizing and measuring citizens’ preferences for democracy: Taking stock of three decades of research in a fragmented field. Comparative Political Studies, 55(12), 2015-2049.
Leonardelli, G. J., & Toh, S. M. (2015). Social categorization in intergroup contexts: Three kinds of self-categorization. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(2), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.v9.2
Levitsky, S., & Ziblatt, D. (2018). How democracies die. Broadway Books.
Magalhães, P. (2018). Regime support. En: Fisher, J.; Fieldhouse, E.; Franklin, M.N.; Cantijoch, M.; Wlezien, C. (Eds.). The Routledge handbook of elections, voting behavior and public opinion. Routledge, 173-185.
Magalhães, P., & Aarslew, L. F. (2025). Survey measures of democratic attitudes and social desirability bias. Political Science Research and Methods, 13, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773925000018
Mainwaring, S., & Pérez-Liñán, A. (2013). Democracies and dictatorships in Latin America: Emergence, survival, and fall. Cambridge University Press.
Marcus, G. E., Sullivan, J. L., Theiss-Morse, E., & Wood, S. J. (1995). With malice toward some: How people make civil liberties judgments. Cambridge University Press.
Mason, L. (2016). A cross-cutting calm: How social sorting drives affective polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80, 351-377.
Mason, L. (2018a). Ideologues without issues: The polarizing consequences of ideological identities. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82, 866-887.
Mason, L. (2018b). Uncivil agreement: How politics became our identity. University of Chicago Press.
Mattes, R. (2018). Support for democracy. En: Thompson, W.R. (Ed.). Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. Oxford University Press.
McCoy, J., Rahman, T., & Somer, M. (2018). Polarization and the global crisis of democracy: common patterns, dynamics, and pernicious consequences for democratic polities. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(1), 16-42.
Moreno, A. (2019). Political cleavages: Issues, parties and the consolidation of democracy. Routledge.
Norris, P. (1999). Critical citizens: Global support for democratic government. Oxford University Press.
Norris, P. (2011). Democratic deficit: Critical citizens revisited. Cambridge University Press.
Nunes, F. & Traumann, T. (2023). Biografia do abismo. HarperCollins.
O’Donnell, G. (2010). Democracia, agencia y estado: Teoría con intención comparativa. Prometeo.
Ortellado, P., Ribeiro, M. M., & Zeine, L. (2022). Existe polarização política no Brasil? Análise das evidências em duas séries de pesquisas de opinião. Opinião Pública, 28(1), 62-91.
Peffley, M., & Rohrschneider, R. (2003). Democratization and political tolerance in seventeen countries: A multi-level model of democratic learning. Political Research Quarterly, 56(3), 243-257.
Petersen, M., Slothuus, R., Stubager, R., & Togeby, L. (2011). Freedom for all? The strength and limits of political tolerance. British Journal of Political Science, 41(3), 581-597.
Prothro, J. W., & Grigg, C. M. (1960). Fundamental principles of democracy: bases of agreement and disagreement. The Journal of Politics, 22, 276-294.
Przeworski, A. (2021). Crises da democracia. Companhia das Letras.
Reiljan, A., Garzia, D., Ferreira da Silva, F., & Trechsel, A. H. (2024). Patterns of affective polarization toward parties and leaders across the democratic world. American Political Science Review, 118(2), 654-670. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423000485
Russo, L., & Areal, J. (2025). Negative partisanship and affective polarization. En: Handbook of affective polarization. Edward Elgar Publishing, 195-210. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035310609.00021
Samuels, D., & Belarmino, K. (2024). Partisan dehumanization in Brazil’s asymmetrically polarized party system. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 16, 3-29.
Samuels, D., Mello, F., & Zucco, C. (2023). Partisan stereotyping and polarization in Brazil. Latin American Politics and Society, 66(2), 47-71.
Samuels, D., & Zucco, C. (2014). The power of partisanship in Brazil: evidence from survey experiments. American Journal of Political Science, 58(1), 212-225.
Samuels, D., & Zucco, C. (2018). Partisans, anti-partisans and voter behavior in Brazil. En: Ames, B. (Ed.). Handbook of Brazilian politics. Routledge, 186-202.
Schedler, A., & Sarsfield, R. (2007). Democrats with adjectives: linking direct and indirect measures of democratic support. European Journal of Political Research, 46(5), 637-659.
Schedler, A. (2023). Rethinking political polarization. Political Science Quarterly, 138(3), 335-359.
Shamir, M. (1991). Political intolerance among masses and elites in Israel: A reevaluation of the elitist theory of democracy. Journal of Politics, 53(4), 1018-1043.
Stouffer, S. A. (1955). Communism, conformity and civil liberties: A cross-section of the nation speaks its mind. Doubleday.
Sullivan, J. L.; Piereson, J.; Marcus, G.E. (1979). An alternative conceptualization of political tolerance: Illusory increases 1950s-1970s. American Political Science Review, 73(3), 781-794.
Sullivan, J. L., Piereson, J., & Marcus, G. E. (1982). Political tolerance and American democracy. University of Chicago Press.
Svolik, M. W. (2019). Polarização versus democracia. Journal of Democracy em Português, 8(2), 5-25.
Svolik, M. W. (2020). When polarization trumps civic virtue: partisan conflict and the subversion of democracy by incumbents. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 15, 3-31.
Torcal, M., & Magalhães, P. (2022). Ideological extremism, perceived party system polarization, and support for democracy. European Political Science Review, 14(2), 188-205.
Zhong, C. B., Phillips, K.W., Leonardelli, G.J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Negational categorization and intergroup behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(6), 793-806. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208315457
Borba, J., Aparecido Ribeiro, E., Unbehaun Leal da Silva, G., & Rodrigo Gimenes, E. (2026). Polarización afectiva y compromiso democrático en Brasil: una prueba crítica de la tolerancia política. América Latina Hoy , 96, e32356. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh.32356
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