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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">artcts</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ArtefaCToS. Revista de estudios sobre la ciencia y la tecnolog&#x00ED;a</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ARTCTS</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">1989-3612</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">30897</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/art2024.30987</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Editorial</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Introduction</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<name>
<surname>De Waal</surname>
<given-names>Frans B. M.</given-names>
</name>
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<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">C. H. Candler Professor Emeritus, Emory University, Atlanta, USA</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">C. H. Candler Professor Emeritus</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Emory University</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Atlanta</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="US">USA</country>
</aff>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>08</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="collection">
    <day>08</day>
    <month>05</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>13</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>5</fpage>
    <lpage>12</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Este obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
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</front>
<body>
<p>My relation with philosophy has always been somewhat ambiguous. Not because I believe science doesn&#x2019;t need philosophy, as some prominent scientists have recently argued. The love-hate relationship between empirical science and philosophy has never affected me. I have freely borrowed philosophical concepts to connect my primate observations with human behavior.</p>
<p>Instead, the ambiguity stems from the fact that I am no philosopher. My knowledge of philosophical texts, even those I have cited, remains limited. It doesn&#x2019;t reach the depth that real philosophers derive from extensive reading and a background in sorting out conflicting views. I am fully aware of this shortcoming, but can&#x2019;t resist philosophy anyway.</p>
<p>The habit to quote philosophers started with my work on the power struggles among chimpanzees, which I interpreted along Machiavellian lines. Even if many philosophers don&#x2019;t like to be associated with his ideas, Niccol&#x00F2; Machiavelli was a political philosopher. His impact was felt when my first book, <italic>Chimpanzee Politics</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-Eng-30897">1982</xref>), which introduced the Florentine to primatology, led to (over)use of the term &#x201C;Machiavellian Intelligence&#x201D; to describe animal social cognition in general.</p>
<p>The philosophers who influenced me most, however, had little to say about political strategizing. My interests shifted around the 1980s when theoretical biologists began to depict the natural world as a dog-eat-dog place of combat, selfish genes, and devoid of kind intentions, as in Michael Ghiselin&#x2019;s oft-quoted line: &#x201C;Scratch an 'altruist,' and watch a 'hypocrite' bleed.&#x201D; Genuine altruism couldn&#x2019;t exist. Moreover, animal cognition and emotion were never part of the discourse, nor was the love and attachment common in many social animals. Some of these writers sounded utterly Cartesian, depicting animals as automatons (i.e. vehicles carrying out DNA programs). They presented these ideas to their readers as Darwinian even though Charles Darwin himself held very different views, and never classified animals as automatons. After all, Darwin wrote a whole book about animal and human emotions.</p>
<p>I found this whole cynical literature so depressing, and so contrary to the reality of observable animal and human behavior, that I read with great approval the works of philosophers such as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-Eng-30897">Mary Midgley&#x2019;s, <italic>Beast and Man</italic> (1979)</xref>, and Robert Richards&#x2019; <italic>Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-Eng-30897">1987</xref>). Both books presented a radically different view of nature, and sharply criticized the above writings by theoretical biologists. They also got me thinking about the origins of morality.</p>
<p>The connection with human morality came in handy when I got more and more involved in the study of animal empathy, reciprocity, and cooperation. My research automatically led me to explore what it was about human morality that made it radically different from animal behavior, as was often claimed. In the end, my conclusion was that the differences were overblown, and that it was better to adopt the Humean view that we are born with moral sentiments. Believing that these sentiments relate back to primate behavioral tendencies, I labeled them &#x201C;building blocks&#x201D; of morality. I never claimed, however, that a chimpanzee is a moral being in the same way that humans are. Instead, I advocated a connection between the way other primates behave and what in humans we call moral tendencies. These ideas were first explained in <italic>Good Natured</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-Eng-30897">1996</xref>), and repeated and elaborated in subsequent books.</p>
<p>When we discovered a sense of fairness in monkeys, another moral building block could be added to the list (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-Eng-30897">Brosnan &#x0026; de Waal, 2003</xref>). Our discovery put a dent in <italic>A Theory of Justice</italic>, a famous treatise on this topic by American moral philosopher <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-Eng-30897">John Rawls (1972)</xref>. In the grand Kantian tradition, Rawls tried to circumnavigate the emotions: &#x201C;&#x2026;for reasons of both simplicity and moral theory, I have assumed an absence of envy.&#x201D; Since when can we simply drop emotions from a discourse about human behavior? I find this baffling. The irony is that if there were zero envy in the world, no one would even care about fairness, because we&#x2019;d never see a meaningful reaction to its absence. Rawls may call envy a &#x201C;vice,&#x201D; but his whole treatise makes no sense without it. The enormous emotional investment humans make in rectifying unfairness and injustice -- the screaming protests, the marches, the violence, the endurance of police beatings -- are a forceful reminder that we aren&#x2019;t dealing with some bloodless mental construct. Injustice shakes us to the core, something that no amount of abstract reasoning, such as that by Rawls, will ever accomplish.</p>
<p>And so I kept engaging with philosophical writing, either borrowing concepts or countering ideas I felt were divorced from reality. The latest such excursion was my writing about &#x201C;normativity&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-Eng-30897">de Waal, 2014</xref>). There is a tendency to claim that human behavior is guided by social norms and expectations, whereas animal behavior just is. It&#x2019;s the old Humean distinction between &#x201C;is&#x201D; and &#x201C;ought.&#x201D; There exists no agreement on this topic, which is why it remains a perennial of philosophical debate. Some have gone so far, however, as to wield &#x201C;Hume&#x2019;s guillotine&#x201D; to kill off any and all attempts to apply evolutionary logic or neuroscience to human morality. Science can&#x2019;t help us understand human morality, it is argued (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-Eng-30897">Black, 1970</xref>).</p>
<p>In contrast, I believe that if capuchin monkeys reject a reward that they normally eat with gusto, only because their neighbor gets a much better reward for the same task, we are dealing with normativity. The monkey has an idea how rewards ought to be distributed. Chimpanzees go even further in that they may refuse the more preferred reward until their neighbor gets one, too. We found that chimpanzees play the Ultimatum Game in the same way as children, including a negative reaction to unfair outcomes. A child may shout &#x201C;That&#x2019;s unfair!&#x201D; whereas a chimpanzee may spit water in the face of the one making an unacceptable proposal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-Eng-30897">Proctor <italic>et al.,</italic> 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>There are other example of social normativity in animal behavior. If we take a broader view, normativity is everywhere. If I disturb a spider web, for example, the spider immediately works on repairing her web, which means that she has a model of what a web ought to look like. This counts as normativity, too, even if it isn&#x2019;t concerned with social behavior. I feel that the topic of natural normativity deserves a much more extensive exploration than the one I provided.</p>
<p>The present volume takes a big leap in connecting philosophy with wat we have learned about the behavior of our closest relatives. Instead of a biologist inspired by philosophy, the direction of contact is now the other way around. This is bound to lead to more dialogue. I notice, for example, how not every author agrees with my views and tries to salvage the age-old human-animal distinction that I have tried to undermine. A volume like this will also stimulate philosophers to pay more attention to the recent surge in animal cognition studies. This surge isn&#x2019;t limited to the primates, but includes all sorts of species, also invertebrates. The sentience of all animals is now up for debate, and interaction between biologists and philosophers will be crucial to resolve this issue (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-Eng-30897">de Waal &#x0026; Andrews, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>I commend the editors for putting a volume like this together, and feel honored how it gives my life&#x2019;s work a central place.</p>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list>
<title><bold>R<sc>eferences</sc></bold></title>
<ref id="ref-1-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Black</surname>, <given-names>M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>1970</year>). <source><italic>Margins of Precision: Essays in Logic and Language.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>Ithaca, New York</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Cornell University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-2-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Brosnan</surname>, <given-names>S. F.</given-names></string-name> &#x0026; <string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>2003</year>). <article-title>Monkeys reject unequal pay</article-title>. <source><italic>Nature</italic></source>, <volume>425</volume>, <fpage>297</fpage>-<lpage>299</lpage>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/nature01963</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-3-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>1996</year>). <source><italic>Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4159/9780674033177</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-4-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>2007 [1982]</year>). <source><italic>Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>Baltimore, MD</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Johns Hopkins University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-5-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>2014</year>). <article-title>Natural normativity: The &#x201C;is&#x201D; and &#x201C;ought&#x201D; of animal behavior</article-title>. <source><italic>Behaviour</italic></source>, <volume>15</volume>, <fpage>185</fpage>-<lpage>204</lpage>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1163/1568539X-00003146</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-6-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name> &#x0026; <string-name><surname>Andrews</surname>, <given-names>K.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>2022</year>). <article-title>The question of animal emotions</article-title>. <source><italic>Science</italic></source>, <volume>375</volume>, <fpage>1351</fpage>-<lpage>1352</lpage>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1126/science.abo2378</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-8-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Midgley</surname>, <given-names>M.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>1979</year>). <source><italic>Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/281336a0</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-9-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Proctor</surname>, <given-names>D.</given-names></string-name>, <string-name><surname>Williamson</surname>, <given-names>R. A.</given-names></string-name>, <string-name><surname>de Waal</surname>, <given-names>F. B. M.</given-names></string-name>, &#x0026; <string-name><surname>Brosnan</surname>, <given-names>S. F.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>2013</year>). <article-title>Chimpanzees play the ultimatum game</article-title>. <source><italic>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</italic> USA</source>, <volume>110</volume>, <fpage>2070</fpage>-<lpage>2075</lpage>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1073/pnas.1220806110</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-10-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Rawls</surname>, <given-names>J.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>1972</year>). <source><italic>A Theory of Justice.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-11-Eng-30897"><mixed-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><string-name><surname>Richards</surname>, <given-names>R.</given-names></string-name></person-group> (<year>1987</year>). <source><italic>Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior.</italic></source> <publisher-loc>Chicago</publisher-loc>: <publisher-name>University of Chicago Press</publisher-name>. <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7208/chicago/9780226149516.001.0001</pub-id></mixed-citation></ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
    <sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="es" id="S1">
       <front-stub>
           <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">30897</article-id>
           <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/art2024.30897</article-id>
           <article-categories>
               <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
                   <subject>Editorial</subject>
               </subj-group>
           </article-categories>
           <title-group>
               <article-title>Introducción</article-title>
           </title-group>
           <contrib-group>
               <contrib contrib-type="author">
                   <name>
                       <surname>De Waal</surname>
                       <given-names>Frans B. M.</given-names>
                   </name>
                   <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
                   <aff id="aff2">
                       <institution content-type="original">C. H. Candler Professor Emeritus, Emory University, Atlanta, USA</institution>
                       <institution content-type="orgdiv1">C. H. Candler Professor Emeritus</institution>
                       <institution content-type="orgname">Emory University</institution>
                       <addr-line>
                           <named-content content-type="city">Atlanta</named-content>
                       </addr-line>
                       <country country="US">USA</country>
                   </aff>
               </contrib>
           </contrib-group>
           <pub-date pub-type="epub">
               <day>08</day>
               <month>05</month>
               <year>2024</year>
           </pub-date>
           <pub-date pub-type="collection">
               <day>08</day>
               <month>05</month>
               <year>2024</year>
           </pub-date>
           <volume>13</volume>
           <issue>1</issue>
           <fpage>5</fpage>
           <lpage>12</lpage>
           <permissions>
               <copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
               <copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
               <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
                   <license-p>Este obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
               </license>
           </permissions>
       </front-stub>
       <body>
           <p>Mi relaci&#x00F3;n con la filosof&#x00ED;a ha sido siempre un tanto ambigua. No porque crea que la ciencia no necesita de la filosof&#x00ED;a, como han argumentado recientemente algunos cient&#x00ED;ficos destacados. La relaci&#x00F3;n de amor-odio entre la ciencia emp&#x00ED;rica y la filosof&#x00ED;a nunca me afect&#x00F3;. He tomado prestados libremente conceptos filos&#x00F3;ficos para conectar mis observaciones de primates con el comportamiento humano.</p>
           <p>M&#x00E1;s precisamente, la ambig&#x00FC;edad surge del hecho de que no soy un fil&#x00F3;sofo. Mi conocimiento de los textos filos&#x00F3;ficos, incluso los que he citado, sigue siendo limitado. No alcanza la profundidad que los verdaderos fil&#x00F3;sofos obtienen de una lectura exhaustiva y de una experiencia en la resoluci&#x00F3;n de puntos de vista conflictivos. Soy plenamente consciente de esta deficiencia, pero de todos modos no puedo resistirme a la filosof&#x00ED;a.</p>
           <p>La costumbre de citar fil&#x00F3;sofos comenz&#x00F3; con mi trabajo sobre las luchas de poder entre chimpanc&#x00E9;s, que interpret&#x00E9; en clave maquiav&#x00E9;lica. Nicol&#x00E1;s Maquiavelo fue un fil&#x00F3;sofo pol&#x00ED;tico, aunque a muchos fil&#x00F3;sofos no les gusta que se les asocie con sus ideas. Su impacto se dej&#x00F3; sentir cuando mi primer libro, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-Esp-30897"><italic>Chimpanzee Politics</italic> (1982)</xref>, que introdujo al florentino en la primatolog&#x00ED;a, llev&#x00F3; a un uso (excesivo) del t&#x00E9;rmino &#x2018;inteligencia maquiav&#x00E9;lica&#x2019; en la descripci&#x00F3;n de la cognici&#x00F3;n social animal en general.</p>
           <p>Sin embargo, los fil&#x00F3;sofos que m&#x00E1;s me influyeron tuvieron muy poco que decir sobre estrategia pol&#x00ED;tica. Mis intereses cambiaron alrededor de la d&#x00E9;cada de 1980, cuando los bi&#x00F3;logos te&#x00F3;ricos comenzaron a describir el mundo natural como un lugar despiadado, con genes ego&#x00ED;stas y desprovisto de buenas intenciones, como en la frase frecuentemente citada de Michael Ghiselin: &#x201C;rasca un &#x2018;altruista&#x2019; y ver&#x00E1;s sangrar a un &#x2018;hip&#x00F3;crita&#x2019;&#x201D;. El altruismo genuino no pod&#x00ED;a existir. Adem&#x00E1;s, la cognici&#x00F3;n y la emoci&#x00F3;n animales nunca formaron parte de la discusi&#x00F3;n, ni el amor ni el apego eran vistos como comunes en muchos animales sociales. Algunos de estos escritores sonaban completamente cartesianos, describiendo a los animales como aut&#x00F3;matas (es decir, veh&#x00ED;culos que llevan a cabo programas de ADN). Presentaron estas ideas a sus lectores como darwinianas a pesar de que el propio Charles Darwin ten&#x00ED;a puntos de vista muy diferentes y nunca clasific&#x00F3; a los animales como aut&#x00F3;matas. Despu&#x00E9;s de todo, Darwin escribi&#x00F3; un libro completo sobre las emociones animales y humanas.</p>
           <p>Toda esta literatura c&#x00ED;nica me pareci&#x00F3; tan deprimente y contraria a la realidad del comportamiento animal y humano observable, que le&#x00ED; con gran aprobaci&#x00F3;n obras de fil&#x00F3;sofos como por ejemplo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-Esp-30897"><italic>Beast and Man</italic> (1979)</xref>, de Mary Midgley, y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-Esp-30897"><italic>Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior</italic> (1987)</xref>, de Robert Richards. Ambos libros presentaron una visi&#x00F3;n radicalmente diferente de la naturaleza y criticaron duramente los escritos mencionados anteriormente de los bi&#x00F3;logos te&#x00F3;ricos. Tambi&#x00E9;n me hicieron pensar en los or&#x00ED;genes de la moral.</p>
           <p>La conexi&#x00F3;n con la moral humana me result&#x00F3; &#x00FA;til cuando me involucr&#x00E9; cada vez m&#x00E1;s en el estudio de la empat&#x00ED;a, la reciprocidad y la cooperaci&#x00F3;n animal. Mi investigaci&#x00F3;n me llev&#x00F3; autom&#x00E1;ticamente a explorar qu&#x00E9; era lo que hac&#x00ED;a que la moral humana fuera radicalmente diferente del comportamiento animal, como a menudo se afirmaba. Al final, mi conclusi&#x00F3;n fue que las diferencias eran exageradas y que era mejor adoptar la visi&#x00F3;n humeana de que nacemos con sentimientos morales. Creyendo que estos sentimientos se relacionan con tendencias comportamentales de los primates, los denomin&#x00E9; &#x2018;elementos b&#x00E1;sicos&#x2019; de la moral. Sin embargo, nunca he afirmado que un chimpanc&#x00E9; sea un ser moral del mismo modo que lo son los humanos. En cambio, abogu&#x00E9; por una conexi&#x00F3;n entre la forma en c&#x00F3;mo se comportan otros primates y lo que en los humanos denominamos &#x2018;tendencias morales&#x2019;. Estas ideas fueron explicadas por primera vez en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-Esp-30897"><italic>Good Natured</italic> (1996)</xref> y repetidas y elaboradas en libros posteriores.</p>
           <p>Cuando descubrimos un sentido de justicia en los monos, se pudo agregar otro elemento moral a la lista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-Esp-30897">Brosnan y de Waal, 2003</xref>). Nuestro descubrimiento marc&#x00F3; una diferencia con <italic>A theory of justice</italic>, un famoso tratado sobre este tema del fil&#x00F3;sofo moral estadounidense <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-Esp-30897">John Rawls (1972)</xref>. En el marco de la gran tradici&#x00F3;n kantiana, Rawls intent&#x00F3; circunnavegar las emociones: &#x201C;&#x2026;por razones tanto de simplicidad como de teor&#x00ED;a moral, he asumido la ausencia de envidia&#x201D;. &#x00BF;Desde cu&#x00E1;ndo podemos simplemente omitir las emociones en una discusi&#x00F3;n sobre el comportamiento humano? Me resulta desconcertante. La iron&#x00ED;a es que si no hubiera envidia en el mundo, a nadie le importar&#x00ED;a siquiera la justicia, dado que nunca ver&#x00ED;amos una reacci&#x00F3;n significativa ante su ausencia. Rawls puede llamar a la envidia un &#x2018;vicio&#x2019;, pero todo su tratado no tiene sentido sin ella. La enorme inversi&#x00F3;n emocional que hacen los humanos para rectificar la desigualdad y la injusticia (las protestas a gritos, las marchas, la violencia, la resistencia a las palizas policiales) son un contundente recordatorio de que no estamos lidiando con una fr&#x00ED;a construcci&#x00F3;n mental aproblem&#x00E1;tica. La injusticia nos sacude hasta la m&#x00E9;dula, algo que ning&#x00FA;n razonamiento abstracto, como el de Rawls, podr&#x00E1; lograr jam&#x00E1;s.</p>
           <p>Y as&#x00ED; segu&#x00ED; interactuando con la escritura filos&#x00F3;fica, ya sea tomando prestados conceptos o peleando con ideas que sent&#x00ED;a que estaban divorciadas de la realidad. La &#x00FA;ltima excursi&#x00F3;n de este tipo fue mi escrito sobre la &#x2018;normatividad&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-Esp-30897">de Waal, 2014</xref>). Existe una tendencia a afirmar que, mientras que el comportamiento humano est&#x00E1; guiado por normas y expectativas sociales, el comportamiento animal simplemente es como es. Se trata de la vieja distinci&#x00F3;n humeana entre &#x2018;es&#x2019; y &#x2018;debe&#x2019;. No existe ning&#x00FA;n acuerdo sobre este tema, por lo que sigue siendo un t&#x00F3;pico de debate filos&#x00F3;fico perenne. Sin embargo, algunos han llegado lo suficientemente lejos como para empu&#x00F1;ar la &#x201C;guillotina de Hume&#x201D; con el fin de acabar con todos y cada uno de los intentos de aplicar la l&#x00F3;gica evolutiva o la neurociencia a la moral humana. Se argumenta, incluso, que la ciencia no puede ayudarnos a comprender la moral humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-Esp-30897">Black, 1970</xref>).</p>
           <p>Por el contrario, creo que, si los monos capuchinos rechazan una recompensa que normalmente comen con gusto, tan s&#x00F3;lo porque su vecino recibe una recompensa mucho mejor por la misma tarea, estamos tratando con la normatividad. El mono tiene una idea de c&#x00F3;mo deber&#x00ED;an distribuirse las recompensas. Los chimpanc&#x00E9;s van incluso m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1;: pueden rechazar una recompensa preferida hasta que su vecino tambi&#x00E9;n reciba una. Hemos descubierto que los chimpanc&#x00E9;s juegan el Juego del Ultim&#x00E1;tum de la misma manera que los ni&#x00F1;os, incluida una reacci&#x00F3;n negativa ante resultados injustos. Mientras que un ni&#x00F1;o puede gritar &#x201C;&#x00A1;Eso es injusto!&#x201D;, un chimpanc&#x00E9; puede escupir agua en la cara de quien le hace una propuesta inaceptable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-Esp-30897">Proctor <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>).</p>
           <p>Hay otros ejemplos de normatividad social en el comportamiento animal. Si adoptamos una visi&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s amplia, la normatividad est&#x00E1; en todas partes. Si muevo una tela de ara&#x00F1;a, por ejemplo, la ara&#x00F1;a inmediatamente se pone a reparar su tela, lo que significa que posee un modelo de c&#x00F3;mo deber&#x00ED;a verse una telara&#x00F1;a. Esto tambi&#x00E9;n cuenta como normatividad, incluso si no tiene que ver con el comportamiento social. Tengo la sensaci&#x00F3;n de que el tema de la normatividad natural merece una exploraci&#x00F3;n mucho m&#x00E1;s extensa que la que proporcion&#x00E9;.</p>
           <p>El presente volumen da un gran paso al conectar la filosof&#x00ED;a con lo que hemos aprendido sobre el comportamiento de nuestros parientes m&#x00E1;s cercanos. En lugar de un bi&#x00F3;logo inspirado por la filosof&#x00ED;a, la direcci&#x00F3;n del contacto es ahora al rev&#x00E9;s. Esto seguramente conducir&#x00E1; a m&#x00E1;s di&#x00E1;logo. Noto, por ejemplo, que no todos los autores est&#x00E1;n de acuerdo con mis puntos de vista y tratan de salvar la antigua distinci&#x00F3;n entre humanos y animales que he tratado de socavar. Un volumen como este tambi&#x00E9;n estimular&#x00E1; a los fil&#x00F3;sofos a prestar m&#x00E1;s atenci&#x00F3;n al reciente aumento de los estudios de la cognici&#x00F3;n animal. Este aumento no se limita a los primates, sino que incluye todo tipo de especies, tambi&#x00E9;n invertebrados. La sensibilidad de todos los animales est&#x00E1; ahora en debate, y la interacci&#x00F3;n entre bi&#x00F3;logos y fil&#x00F3;sofos ser&#x00E1; crucial para resolver esta cuesti&#x00F3;n (p. ej., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-Esp-30897">de Waal y Andrews, 2022</xref>).</p>
           <p>Felicito a los editores por haber elaborado un volumen como este y me siento honrado de que le den un lugar central al trabajo de toda mi vida.</p>
       </body>
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               <title><bold>R<sc>eferencias</sc></bold></title>
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