Acceso a la estructura fonológica de la lengua: repercusión en los lectores sordos
Resumen La lengua escrita está basada en la fonología. Las letras representan con mayor o menor fidelidad a los fonemas y este hecho es fundamental para apren der a leer, como demuestran los actuales modelos teóricos de lectura. En el caso de las personas sordas, el acceso a la dimensión fonológica de la lengua puede estar dificultado a causa del déficit auditivo y, por lo tanto, ser causa de dificultades en la lectura. Las investigaciones actuales muestran que sigue existiendo un intenso deba te sobre la cuestión de la participación de la fonología en la lectura de los niños sordos. En este artículo se resumen y discuten varias de las opciones principales que pueden ayudar hoy en día a los niños sordos a acceder a la dimensión fonoló gica de la lengua: el implante coclear; la exposición a la lengua oral con ayuda de la palabra complementada; ambas opciones juntas; y la exposición a la lengua de sig nos. Los datos parecen mostrar que es esencial proporcionar a los niños sordos la oportunidad de acceder a una primera lengua, temprana, estructurada en el nivel fonológico, léxico y morfosintáctico, y el acceso a la estructura fonológica de la lengua oral.
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ALEGRÍA, J. y DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B. (2009) Los alumnos sordos y el aprendizaje de la lectura. Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva, 3 (1), 95-111.
ALEGRÍA, J.; DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B. y VAN DER STRATEN, P. (2009) ¿Cómo leen los sordos adultos? La estrategia de palabras clave. Revista de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología, 29 (3), 195-206.
ARCHBOLD, S.; HARRIS, M.; O’DONOGHUE, G.; NIKOLOPOULOS, T.; WHITE, A. y RICHMOND, H. L. (2008) Reading abilities after cochlear implantation: The effect of age at implantation on outcomes at 5 and 7 years after implantation. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 72, 1471-1478.
BÉLANGER, N. N.; BAUM, S. R. y MAYBERRY, R. I. (2011) Reading difficulties in adult deaf readers of French: Phonological codes, not guilty! Scientific Studies of Reading, 00 (0), 1-22.
BÉLANGER, N. N.; SLATTERY, T. J.; MAYBERRY, R. y RAYNER, K. (2012) Skilled deaf readers haven an enhanced perceptual span in reading. Psychological Science, 23 (7), 816-823.
BLAMEY, P. J.; SARANT, J. Z.; PAATSCH, L. E. et al. (2001) Relationships among speech per ception, production, language, hearing loss, and age in children with impaired hearing. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 264-285.
BOUTON, S.; BERTONCINI, J.; SERNICLAES, W. y COLÉ, P. (2011) Reading and reading-related skills in children using cochlear implants: Prospects for the influence of cued speech. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16 (4), 458-473.
BOUTON, S.; COLÉ, P.; BERTONCINI, J. y SERNICLAES, W. (2012) Perception of speech features by French-speaking children with cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 5, 139-153.
BRADLEY, L. y BRYANT, P. E. (1983) Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
BURDEN, V. y CAMPBELL, R. (1994) The development of word-coding skills in the born deaf: An experimental study of deaf school-leavers. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 331-349.
CARTER, A. K.; DILLON, C. M. y PISONI, D. B. (2002) Imitation of nonwords by hearing impaired children with cochlear implants: Suprasegmental analyses. Clin Linguist Phon, 16, 619-638.
CHAMBERLAIN, C. y MAYBERRY, R. I. (2000) Theorizing about the relation between Ameri can Sign Language and reading. En C. CHAMBERLAIN, J. P. MORFORD y R. I. MAYBER RY (eds.) Language acquisition by eye (pp. 221-259). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
CHARLIER, B. L. y LEYBAERT, J. (2000) The rhyming skills of deaf children educated with phonetically augmented speechreading. The Quaterly Journal of Experimental Psycho logy, 53A (2), 349-375.
COLIN, S.; MAGNAN, A.; ECALLE, J. y LEYBAERT, J. (2007) A longitudinal study of the development of reading in deaf children: Effect of Cued Speech. Journal of Child Psy chology and Psychiatry, 48, 139-146.
CONNOR, C. M.; CRAIG, H. K.; RAUDENBUSH, S. W.; HEAVNER, K. y ZOLAN, T. A. (2006) The age at which young deaf children receive cochlear implants and their vocabulary and speech-production growth: Is there an added value for early implantation? Ear & Hearing, 27 (6), 628-644.
CONNOR, C. M. y ZWOLAN, T. (2004) Examining multiple sources of influence on the read ing comprehension skills of children who use cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 1185-1204.
CONRAD, R. (1979) The deaf child. London: Harper & Row.
DAVIDSON, L. S.; GEERS, A. E.; BLAMEY, P. J.; TOBEY, E. A. y BRENNER, C. A. (2010) Factors contributing to speech perception scores in long-term pediatric cochlear implant users. Ear & Hearing, 32 (1), 19S-26S.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2010) Reading mechanisms in orally educated deaf adults. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15 (2), 136-148.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; CARRILLO, M.; PÉREZ, M. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2014) Analysis of Reading strategies in deaf adults as a function of their language and meta-phonological skills. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 1439-1456.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; PÉREZ, I. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2012) La lectura en los alumnos sordos: apor tación del implante coclear. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 35 (3), 327-341.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; RODRÍGUEZ, P. y ALONSO, P. (2011) Cómo facilitar aprendizaje de la lectura de niños sordos. Importancia de las habilidades fonológicas. Revista de Educa ción, 356, 353-375.
GEERS, A. E. (2003) Predictors of reading skill development in children with early cochlear implantation. Ear and Hearing, 24 (Suppl.), 59S-68S.
GEERS, A. E. (2004) Speech, language and reading skills alter early cochlear implantation. Arch. Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg, 130 (5), 634-638.
GEERS, A.; NICHOLAS, J. G. y MOOG, J. S. (2007) Estimating the influence of cochlear implantation on language development. Audiological Medicine, 5, 262-273.
GEERS, A.; TOBEY, E.; MOOG, J. y BRENNER, C. (2008) Long-term outcomes of cochlear implantation in the preschool years: From elementary grades to high school. Interna tional Journal of Audiology, 47, Suppl 2, S21-30 Geers, Moog, Biedenstein, Brenner y Hayes, 2009
GOLDIN-MEADOW, S. y MAYBERRY, R. (2001) How do profoundly deaf children learn to read? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16 (4), 222-229.
GOSWAMI, U. y BRYANT, P. (1990) Phonological skills and learning to read. Hove, East Sus sex, England: Erlbaum.
HARRIS, M. y BEECH, J. R. (1998) Implicit phonological awareness and early reading deve lopment in prelingually deaf children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 3, 80-134.
HARRIS, M. y TERLEKTSI, E. (2010) Reading and Spelling Abilities of Deaf Adolescents With Cochlear Implants and Hearing Aids. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Educa tion, 16, 24-34.
HAYES, H.; KESSLER, B. y TREIMAN, R. (2011) Spelling of Deaf children who use cochlear implants. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 522-539.
JAMES, D.; RAJPUT, K.; BRINTON, J. y GOSWAMI, U. (2007) Phonological awareness, voca bulary, and word reading in children who use cochlear implants: Does age of implanta tion explain individual variability in performance outcomes and growth? Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13 (1), 117-137.
JAMES, D.; RAJPUT, K.; BROWN, T.; SIRIMANNA, T.; BRINTON, J. y GOSWAMI, U. (2005) Phonological awareness in deaf children who use cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 1511-1528.
JOHNSON, C. y GOSWAMI, U. (2005) Phonological skills, vocabulary development, and rea ding development in children with cochlear implants. Paper presented at the 20th Inter national Congress on the Education of the Deaf, Maastricht, The Nederland.
JOHNSON, C. y GOSWAMI, U. (2010) Phonological awareness, vocabulary, and reading in deaf children with cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53, 237-261.
KYLE, F. y HARRIS, M. (2010) Predictors of reading development in deaf children: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 229-243.
LA SASSO, C.; CRAIN, K. y LEYBAERT, J. (2010) Cued Speech and Cued Language for deaf and hard of hearing children. Plural Publishing Inc, San Diego, 500 pp.
LEYBAERT, J. (1993) Reading in the deaf: The roles of phonological codes. En M. MARSCHARK y D. CLARK (eds.) Psychological Perspectives in Deafness (pp. 203-227). New York: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
LEYBAERT, J. (2000) Phonology acquired through the eyes and spelling in deaf children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75, 291-318.
LEYBAERT, J. (2005) Reading and Hearing Impairment. En M. SNOWLING, M. SEIDENBERG y C. HULMES (eds.) Handbook of Reading (pp. 379-396). Psychology Press.
LEYBAERT, J.; BRAVARD, S.; SUDRE, S. y COCHARD, N. (2009) La adquisición de la lectura y la ortografía en niños sordos con implante coclear: Efectos de la Palabra Complementa da. En M. CARRILLO y A. B. DOMÍNGUEZ (eds.) Líneas actuales en el estudio de la len gua escrita y sus dificultades: dislexia y sordera. Libro de lecturas en honor de Jesús Alegría. Malaga: Aljibe
LEYBAERT, J. y COLIN, C. (2008) Perception multimodale de la parole dans le développe ment normal et atypique: premières données. En M. KAIL, M. FAYOL y M. HICKMAN (eds.) Apprentissage des langues (pp. 529-547). Paris: CNRS editions.
LEYBAERT, J.; COLIN, S. y LA SASSO, C. J. (2010) Cued speech for Deaf Students’ mastery of the alphabetic principle. En C. J. LA SASSO, K. CRAIN y J. LEYBAERT (eds.) Cued Speech and Cued Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children (pp. 245-283). San Diego: Plural Publishing Inc.
LEYBAERT, J. y LECHAT, J. (2001) Phonological Similarity Effects in Memory for Serial Order for Cued Speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 949-963.
LICHTENSTEIN, E. H. (1998) The relationship between reading processes and English skills of deaf college students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 234-248.
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ALEGRÍA, J.; DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B. y VAN DER STRATEN, P. (2009) ¿Cómo leen los sordos adultos? La estrategia de palabras clave. Revista de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología, 29 (3), 195-206.
ARCHBOLD, S.; HARRIS, M.; O’DONOGHUE, G.; NIKOLOPOULOS, T.; WHITE, A. y RICHMOND, H. L. (2008) Reading abilities after cochlear implantation: The effect of age at implantation on outcomes at 5 and 7 years after implantation. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 72, 1471-1478.
BÉLANGER, N. N.; BAUM, S. R. y MAYBERRY, R. I. (2011) Reading difficulties in adult deaf readers of French: Phonological codes, not guilty! Scientific Studies of Reading, 00 (0), 1-22.
BÉLANGER, N. N.; SLATTERY, T. J.; MAYBERRY, R. y RAYNER, K. (2012) Skilled deaf readers haven an enhanced perceptual span in reading. Psychological Science, 23 (7), 816-823.
BLAMEY, P. J.; SARANT, J. Z.; PAATSCH, L. E. et al. (2001) Relationships among speech per ception, production, language, hearing loss, and age in children with impaired hearing. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 264-285.
BOUTON, S.; BERTONCINI, J.; SERNICLAES, W. y COLÉ, P. (2011) Reading and reading-related skills in children using cochlear implants: Prospects for the influence of cued speech. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 16 (4), 458-473.
BOUTON, S.; COLÉ, P.; BERTONCINI, J. y SERNICLAES, W. (2012) Perception of speech features by French-speaking children with cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 5, 139-153.
BRADLEY, L. y BRYANT, P. E. (1983) Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
BURDEN, V. y CAMPBELL, R. (1994) The development of word-coding skills in the born deaf: An experimental study of deaf school-leavers. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 331-349.
CARTER, A. K.; DILLON, C. M. y PISONI, D. B. (2002) Imitation of nonwords by hearing impaired children with cochlear implants: Suprasegmental analyses. Clin Linguist Phon, 16, 619-638.
CHAMBERLAIN, C. y MAYBERRY, R. I. (2000) Theorizing about the relation between Ameri can Sign Language and reading. En C. CHAMBERLAIN, J. P. MORFORD y R. I. MAYBER RY (eds.) Language acquisition by eye (pp. 221-259). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
CHARLIER, B. L. y LEYBAERT, J. (2000) The rhyming skills of deaf children educated with phonetically augmented speechreading. The Quaterly Journal of Experimental Psycho logy, 53A (2), 349-375.
COLIN, S.; MAGNAN, A.; ECALLE, J. y LEYBAERT, J. (2007) A longitudinal study of the development of reading in deaf children: Effect of Cued Speech. Journal of Child Psy chology and Psychiatry, 48, 139-146.
CONNOR, C. M.; CRAIG, H. K.; RAUDENBUSH, S. W.; HEAVNER, K. y ZOLAN, T. A. (2006) The age at which young deaf children receive cochlear implants and their vocabulary and speech-production growth: Is there an added value for early implantation? Ear & Hearing, 27 (6), 628-644.
CONNOR, C. M. y ZWOLAN, T. (2004) Examining multiple sources of influence on the read ing comprehension skills of children who use cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 1185-1204.
CONRAD, R. (1979) The deaf child. London: Harper & Row.
DAVIDSON, L. S.; GEERS, A. E.; BLAMEY, P. J.; TOBEY, E. A. y BRENNER, C. A. (2010) Factors contributing to speech perception scores in long-term pediatric cochlear implant users. Ear & Hearing, 32 (1), 19S-26S.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2010) Reading mechanisms in orally educated deaf adults. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 15 (2), 136-148.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; CARRILLO, M.; PÉREZ, M. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2014) Analysis of Reading strategies in deaf adults as a function of their language and meta-phonological skills. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 1439-1456.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; PÉREZ, I. y ALEGRÍA, J. (2012) La lectura en los alumnos sordos: apor tación del implante coclear. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 35 (3), 327-341.
DOMÍNGUEZ, A. B.; RODRÍGUEZ, P. y ALONSO, P. (2011) Cómo facilitar aprendizaje de la lectura de niños sordos. Importancia de las habilidades fonológicas. Revista de Educa ción, 356, 353-375.
GEERS, A. E. (2003) Predictors of reading skill development in children with early cochlear implantation. Ear and Hearing, 24 (Suppl.), 59S-68S.
GEERS, A. E. (2004) Speech, language and reading skills alter early cochlear implantation. Arch. Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg, 130 (5), 634-638.
GEERS, A.; NICHOLAS, J. G. y MOOG, J. S. (2007) Estimating the influence of cochlear implantation on language development. Audiological Medicine, 5, 262-273.
GEERS, A.; TOBEY, E.; MOOG, J. y BRENNER, C. (2008) Long-term outcomes of cochlear implantation in the preschool years: From elementary grades to high school. Interna tional Journal of Audiology, 47, Suppl 2, S21-30 Geers, Moog, Biedenstein, Brenner y Hayes, 2009
GOLDIN-MEADOW, S. y MAYBERRY, R. (2001) How do profoundly deaf children learn to read? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16 (4), 222-229.
GOSWAMI, U. y BRYANT, P. (1990) Phonological skills and learning to read. Hove, East Sus sex, England: Erlbaum.
HARRIS, M. y BEECH, J. R. (1998) Implicit phonological awareness and early reading deve lopment in prelingually deaf children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 3, 80-134.
HARRIS, M. y TERLEKTSI, E. (2010) Reading and Spelling Abilities of Deaf Adolescents With Cochlear Implants and Hearing Aids. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Educa tion, 16, 24-34.
HAYES, H.; KESSLER, B. y TREIMAN, R. (2011) Spelling of Deaf children who use cochlear implants. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 522-539.
JAMES, D.; RAJPUT, K.; BRINTON, J. y GOSWAMI, U. (2007) Phonological awareness, voca bulary, and word reading in children who use cochlear implants: Does age of implanta tion explain individual variability in performance outcomes and growth? Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13 (1), 117-137.
JAMES, D.; RAJPUT, K.; BROWN, T.; SIRIMANNA, T.; BRINTON, J. y GOSWAMI, U. (2005) Phonological awareness in deaf children who use cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 1511-1528.
JOHNSON, C. y GOSWAMI, U. (2005) Phonological skills, vocabulary development, and rea ding development in children with cochlear implants. Paper presented at the 20th Inter national Congress on the Education of the Deaf, Maastricht, The Nederland.
JOHNSON, C. y GOSWAMI, U. (2010) Phonological awareness, vocabulary, and reading in deaf children with cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53, 237-261.
KYLE, F. y HARRIS, M. (2010) Predictors of reading development in deaf children: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 229-243.
LA SASSO, C.; CRAIN, K. y LEYBAERT, J. (2010) Cued Speech and Cued Language for deaf and hard of hearing children. Plural Publishing Inc, San Diego, 500 pp.
LEYBAERT, J. (1993) Reading in the deaf: The roles of phonological codes. En M. MARSCHARK y D. CLARK (eds.) Psychological Perspectives in Deafness (pp. 203-227). New York: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
LEYBAERT, J. (2000) Phonology acquired through the eyes and spelling in deaf children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75, 291-318.
LEYBAERT, J. (2005) Reading and Hearing Impairment. En M. SNOWLING, M. SEIDENBERG y C. HULMES (eds.) Handbook of Reading (pp. 379-396). Psychology Press.
LEYBAERT, J.; BRAVARD, S.; SUDRE, S. y COCHARD, N. (2009) La adquisición de la lectura y la ortografía en niños sordos con implante coclear: Efectos de la Palabra Complementa da. En M. CARRILLO y A. B. DOMÍNGUEZ (eds.) Líneas actuales en el estudio de la len gua escrita y sus dificultades: dislexia y sordera. Libro de lecturas en honor de Jesús Alegría. Malaga: Aljibe
LEYBAERT, J. y COLIN, C. (2008) Perception multimodale de la parole dans le développe ment normal et atypique: premières données. En M. KAIL, M. FAYOL y M. HICKMAN (eds.) Apprentissage des langues (pp. 529-547). Paris: CNRS editions.
LEYBAERT, J.; COLIN, S. y LA SASSO, C. J. (2010) Cued speech for Deaf Students’ mastery of the alphabetic principle. En C. J. LA SASSO, K. CRAIN y J. LEYBAERT (eds.) Cued Speech and Cued Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children (pp. 245-283). San Diego: Plural Publishing Inc.
LEYBAERT, J. y LECHAT, J. (2001) Phonological Similarity Effects in Memory for Serial Order for Cued Speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 949-963.
LICHTENSTEIN, E. H. (1998) The relationship between reading processes and English skills of deaf college students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 234-248.
MARSCHARK, M. y HARRIS, M. (1996) Success and failure in learning to read: The special case (?) of deaf children. En C. CORNOLDI y J. OAKHILL (eds.) Reading comprehension difficulties: Process and intervention (pp. 279-300). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
MARSCHARK, M.; RHOTEN, C. y FABICH, M. (2007) Effects of cochlear implants on chil dren’s reading and academic achievement. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 12, 269-282.
MARSCHARK, M. y SPENCER, P. E. (eds.) (2010) The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
MARSCHARK, M. y SPENCER, P. E. (eds.) (2011) The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education. Vol. 1 (2nd Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
MAYBERRY, R. I.; DEL GIUDICE, A. y LIEBERMAN, A. M. (2010) Reading achievement in relation to phonological coding and awareness in deaf readers: A Meta-analysis. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. Advance Access published, November 11, 2010, DOI: 10.1093/deafed/enq049.
MEDINA, V. y SERNICLAES, W. (2005) Late development of the categorical perception of speech sounds in pre-adolescent children. ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 42, 13-32.
MOUSTY, P. y LEYBAERT, J. (1999) Étude longitudinale du développement de la lecture et de l’orthographe grâce à la batterie BELEC. Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée, 49, 4, 325-342.
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